I 

1 

SANTA  BARBARA 
THE  IIBRARY  OF 

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iO  AUVaSII  3H1 
THE  UNIVERSITY 

1 

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s 

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THE 

PRINCIPLES 

OF 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR; 

COMPRISING  THE  SUBSTANCE  OF  THE  MOST  APPBOVBS 
ENGLISH  GRAMMARS  EXTANT. 

WITH 

COPIOUS    EXERCISES 

IN 

PARSING^AND   SYNTAX,  ' 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  ACADEMIES  AND  COMMON  SCHOOLS. 

A  NEW  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  CORRECTED; 

WITH 

AN   APPENDIX 

OF  VARIOUS  AND  USEFUL  MATTER. 


By  the  Rev.  PETER  BULLIONS,  D.  D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  LANGUAGES  IN  THE  ALBANY  ACADEMY:  AVTHOB 

OF  PRINCIPLES  OF  LATIN  GRAMMAR;    AND  FRINCIFLE8 

OF  GREEK  GRAMMAR. 


/O*^  8IXTEEMTH  XDimV,- 

NEW-YORK: 
PUBLISHED  BY  PRATT,  WOODFORD  &  00.^ 

1846. 


[Entered  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  Ih  i2,  by 
Peter  Bullions,  in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  tf  tk« 
United  States,  for  the  Southern  District  of  New- York.] 


UmVEKSll  Y  OF  CALIFORNIA 
8ANTA  BARBARA 


PREFACE. 


A  KNOWLEDGE  of  English  Grammar  is  very  properly  considered  at. 
indispensable  part  of  an  English  education  ;  and  is  now  taught  as 
such,  in  all  our  Academies  and  Common  Schools.  The  great  num- 
ber of  elementary  works  which  have  recently  appeared  on  this  subject, 
is  a  pleasing  evidence  of  the  attention  which  has  been  bestowed  upon 
it.  Among  these,  none  has  enjoyed  greater  favour  than  the  Grammar 
ofLiNDLET  Murray;  and  the  high  rank  which  it  still  holds  among 
the  numerous  works  which  have  appeared  since  its  publication,  is  a 
decided  testimony  to  the  soundness  of  its  principles  and  the  excellence 
of  the  system.  With  all  its  excellence,  however,  it  is  far  from  being 
incapable  of  improvement;  and  the  attempt  to  add  to  its  value  as  a  ma- 
nual for  schools,  by  correcting  what  is  erroneous,  retrenching  what  is 
superfluous  or  unimportant,  compressing  what  is  prolix,  elucidating 
what  is  obscure,  determining  what  was  left  doubtful,  supplying  what 
is  defective,  and  bringing  up  the  whole  to  that  state  of  improvement  to 
which  the  labours  of  eminent  scientific  and  practical  writers  of  the  pre- 
sent day  have  so  greatly  contributed,  can  hardly  fail,  if  well  executed, 
to  prove  acceptable  to  the  public.  Such  was  my  design  ;  and  though 
tliere  may  be  reason  to  regret  that  it  has  not  been  undertaken  by  some 
one  more  capable  of  doing  justice  to  the  subject,  still  it  is  hoped  that 
the  labour  bestowed,  in  order  to  carry  it  into  effect,  will  not  be  alto- 
gether in  vain. 

In  endeavouring  to  avoid  the  minutiae  and  diffuseness  of  the  larger 
Grammar,  care  has  been  taken  to  guard  against  the  opposite  extreme. 
The  abridgments  of  Murray  now  in  use,  are  little  more  than  a  synop- 
sis of  the  larger  work  ;  presenting  a  mere  outline  of  the  subject,  alto- 
gether too  meagre  to  be  of  much  service  to  the  learner.  The  same 
remark  is  applicable  to  a  great  number  of  smaller  works  which  have 
been  pubhshed  with  a  similar  view  ;  namely,  to  serve  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  a  more  extended  system.  They  are  incapable  themselves  of 
imparting  a  satisfactory  knowledge  of  the  subject ;  and  yet  it  often 
happens,  perhaps  even  in  a  majority  of  cases,  that  those  who  have 


IT  PKKFACK. 

commenced  with  the  "introduction,"  have  neither  the  time  nor  the 
means  to  get  beyond  it:  and  besides,  unless  the  "introduction"  be 
constructed  on  the  same  principle  of  arrangement  and  expression  with 
the  one  which  is  intended  to  succeed,  it  will  probably  be  found  worse 
than  useless ;  for  when  a  particular  arrangement  and  phraseology 
have  become  familiar  to  the  mind,  there  is  great  difficulty  in  studying 
another  work  on  the  same  subject,  in  which  the  arrangement  and 
expression  are  materially  different.  A  Grammar,  to  be  really  valu- 
able, ought  to  be  simple  in  its  style  and  arrangement,  so  as  to  he 
adapted  to  the  capacity  of  youth,  for  whose  use  it  is  designed  ;  com- 
prehensive, so  as  to  be  a  sufficient  guide  in  the  most  difficult,  as  well 
as  in  easy  cases  ;  and  its  principles  and  rules  should  be  rendered  fa- 
miliar to  the  learner  by  numerous  examples  and  exercises. 

To  meet  these  views  of  what  a  Grammar  for  the  use  of  Schools 
ought  to  be,  the  present  compilation  has  been  made, — with  what  suc- 
cess, a  discerning  public,  to  whose  judgment  it  is  respectfully  submit- 
ted, will  decide.  Utility,  not  novelty,  has  been  aimed  at.  In  collect- 
ing materials,  I  have  freely  availed  myself  of  the  labours  of  others  who 
have  treated  on  the  subject  since  the  days  of  Murray,  and  particularly 
of  those  whose  object  has  been  similar  to  my  own.  Lennie's  "  Prin- 
ciples of  English  Grammar,"  deservedly  esteemed,  in  Britain,  the  best 
compend  for  the  use  of  schools  which  has  yet  appeared,  I  have  adopted 
as  the  ground  plan  of  my  work.  The  works  of  Murray,  Angus, 
CoNNEL,  Grant,  Crombie,  Hilet,  Webster,  and  others  in  the  ex- 
tensive collection  of  my  friend  Dr.  Beck,  to  which  1  have  enjoyed  free 
access,  have  been  consulted  ;  and  from  all  of  them  has  been  carefully 
selected,  condensed,  and  arranged,  whatever  seemed  to  be  suitable  to 
my  purpose.  For  several  valuable  suggestions,  also,  I  am  indebted  to 
Dr.  T.  R.  Beck,  and  several  other  literary  friends,  who  kindly  exam- 
med  my  MSS.  before  they  were  sent  to  press,  and  freely  communicated 
their  sentiments.  On  the  whole,  it  is  believed  that  there  is  nothing  of 
much  importance  in  Murray's  larger  Grammar,  or  in  the  works  of  sub- 
sequent writers,  that  will  not  be  found  condensed  here. 

On  the  subject  of  Etymology,  much  expansion  has  been  deemed  un- 
necessary :  I  have  therefore  generally  contented  myself  with  stating 
results,  without  embarrassing  the  work  with  the  processes,  often  tedious 
and  obscure,  which  have  led  to  them.  In  the  classification  of  words, 
almost  all  writers  differ  from  each  other  ;  and  though  on  this  subject 
there  has  been  much  discussion,  nothing  has  yet  been  proposed  which, 
an  the  whole,  appears  less  objectionable  in  principle,  or  more  conve- 


FREPACE.  m 

nient  in  practice,  than  that  of  Murray,  which  is  therefore  generally  re- 
tained. 

In  Syntax,  greater  fulness  has  been  considered  proper.  In  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  Rules,  scarcely  two  writers  have  followed  the  same 
order;  and  that  here  adopted  is  somewhat  different  from  any  other. 
Without  regarding  much  the  usual  division  of  Syntax  into  Concord  and 
Government,  those  rules  are  placed  first  which  appear  to  be  most  sim- 
ple, and  of  most  frequent  occurrence.  Care  has  been  taken,  however, 
to  connect  with  a  leading  rule  those  of  a  subordinate  character  allied 
to  it,  and  to  add  under  every  rule  such  notes  and  observations  as  ap- 
peared necessary  to  its  illustration.  Copious  exercises  in  false  syntax 
follow  each  rule,  generally  on  the  same  page ;  and  exercises  adapted 
to  the  notes,  &c.  are  subjoined,  distinguished  by  the  number  of  the 
note  to  which  they  belong.  For  the  purpose  of  better  exercising  the 
judgment  of  the  pupil,  there  have  been  introduced  at  intervals,  exer- 
cises on  the  preceding  rules  promiscuously  arranged ;  and  at  the 
end,  promiscuous  exercises  are  furnished  on  all  the  rules  and  obser- 
vations ; — the  whole  forming  a  body  of  exercises,  containing  perhaps 
not  fewer  examples  than  Murray's  separate  volume  of  Exercises  on 
the  Rules  of  Syntax.  In  this,  economy  as  well  as  convenience  has 
been  consulted.  The  leading  principles  have  been  made  so  prominent 
by  being  printed  on  a  large  type,  that  they  may  be  easily  studied  by 
the  youngest  classes  without  a  separate  compend.  Every  thing  ne- 
cessary for  the  fuller  expansion  and  illustration  of  these  principles,  has 
been  introduced  in  its  place  ;  and  the  whole  furnished  with  questions 
and  appropriate  exercises,  in  order  to  render  every  part  familiar  to  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  as  he  advances,  so  that  no  larger  treatise,  and  no 
separate  book  of  exercises,  will  be  necessary.  The  arrangement  of 
the  exercises  on  syntax  on  the  same  page  with  the  rule  which  they 
are  designed  to  illustrate,  it  is  believed,  will  greatly  diminish  the  la- 
bour, both  of  teacher  and  pupil,  in  going  over  this  important  part  of 
the  subject. 

Another  object  steadily  kept  in  view  in  this  compilation  is  to  render 
it  a  profitable  introduction  to  classical  studies.  While  all  languages 
differ  from  each  other  in  their  mode  of  inflexion,  and  in  some  forms  of 
expression  peculiar  to  themselves,  usually  denominated  idioms,  their 
general  principles  are,  to  a  very  great  extent,  the  same.  It  would  seem, 
therefore,  to  be  proper,  in  constructing  grammars  for  differen .  lan- 
guages, that  the  principles,  so  far  as  they  are  the  same,  should  be  ar- 
ranged in  the  same  order,  and  expressed  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the 
same  words.    Were  this  carefully  done,  the  study  of  the  grammar  at 

1* 


Tl  PREFACE. 

one  language  would  be  a  very  important  aid  in  the  study  of  another; 
and  the  opportunity  thus  afibrded  of  seeing  wherein  they  agree  and 
wherein  they  differ,  would  of  itself  furnish  a  profitable  exercise  in  com- 
parative grammar.  But  when  a  Latin  grammar  is  put  into  the  hands 
of  a  boy,  differing  widely  in  its  arrangement  or  phraseologj'  from  the 
English  grammar  which  he  had  previously  studied,  and  then  in  due 
time  a  Greek  grammar  different  from  both,  not  only  is  the  benefit  de- 
rived from  the  analogy  of  the  different  languages  in  a  great  measure 
lost,  but  the  whole  subject  is  made  to  appear  intolerably  intricate  and 
mysterious.  To  remedy  this  evil,  I  resolved,  some  time  ago,  to  pub- 
lish a  series  of  Grammars  of  the  English,  Latin,  and  Greek  languages, 
arranged  in  the  same  order,  and  expressed  as  nearly  in  the  same  words 
as  the  genius  of  the  languages  would  permit.  In  the  prosecution  of 
this  purpose,  the  Greek  Grammar,  on  the  foundation  of  Moor's,  was 
published  in  1831 ;  the  English  Grammar  of  Murray,  in  a  condensed 
form,  embracing  every  thing  valuable  from  later  works,  is  now  offered 
to  the  public ;  and  if  the  plan  is  favourably  received,  the  Latin  Gram- 
mar of  Alexander  Adam,  adapted  to  the  system,  with  improvements, 
will  follow  as  soon  as  possible. 


PREFACE 

TO    THE    FIFTH    EDITION. 


This  work  has  been  again  thorouglily  revised,  and  every  error  dis- 
covered in  the  preceding  editions  has  been  carefully  corrected.  A  sec- 
tion has  been  introduced  in  its  proper  place  on  Person,  as  a  modifica- 
tion or  accident  of  the  noun.  The  terms  Transitive  and  Intransitive, 
have  been  substituted  for  Active  and  Neuter,  as  a  more  appropriate  and 
accurate  designation  of  the  two  classes  of  verbs.  By  this  means  all 
ambiguity  and  controversy  is  avoided  on  this  point — the  term  Active  is 
confined  to  one  appropriate  use, — and  the  word  Neuter  13  dispensed  with 
80  as  to  be  applied  solely  to  the  gender  of  nouns.  The  designation  of 
the  tenses  formerly  used  is  still  retained,  while  that  recommended,  p. 
38,  as  more  expressive  and  appropriate  is  at  the  request  of  some  dis- 
tinguished teachers,  inserted  in  brackets  after  the  other ;  so  that  the 


PREFACE.  VU 

one  or  the  other,  or  both,  may  be  conveniently  used  as  the  teacher  may 
direct.  A  page  and  a  half  has  been  added  to  the  section  on  compoei* 
tion,  and  an  Appendix  of  28  pages  has  been  added,  containing  a  brief 
statement  and  examination  of  some  points  relative  to  grammar  itself— the 
classification  and  designation  of  the  parts  of  speech — an  etymological 
vocabulary  of  grammatical  terms,  shewing  their  derivation  and  mean* 
ing — a  list  of  Latin  and  French  words  and  phrases,  often  to  be  met 
with  in  English  books, — and  a  selection  and  explanation  of  the  more 
common  law  terms,  constantly  occurring  in  the  reports  of  legal  pro* 
ceedings,  and  the  debates  of  our  legislative  assembhes  in  this  country. 

The  author  takes  this  opportunity  of  renewing  his  gratefid  acknow- 
ledgments to  those  gentlemen  who  have  kindly  examined  the  work,  and 
favored  him  with  their  observations  on  it.  To  the  hints  derived  from 
these,  he  is  chiefly  indebted  for  the  improvements  that  appear  in  this 
edition.  The  favorable  opinion  expressed  of  the  work  by  the  most  com- 
petent judges,  encourages  him  to  hope  that  the  object  he  had  in  view, 
to  furnish  a  simple,  concise,  and  comprehensive  manual  of  English 
Grammar,  better  adapted  to  the  use  of  academies  and  common  schools 
than  any  yet  published,  is  now  in  a  good  degree  attained. 

The  Latin  Grammar  formerly  announced  has  been  pubHshed,  and 
also  the  revised  edition  of  the  Greek  Grammar.  These  works  now 
form  a  complete  series  of  grammars — English,  Latin,  and  Greek  all  on 
the  same  plan,  arranged  in  the  same  order,  and  having  the  definitions, 
rules,  and  leading  parts  expressed  as  near  as  possible  in  the  same  lan- 
guage. By  this  method  the  confusion  and  unnecessary  labor  occa- 
sioned by  studying  grammars,  in  these  languages,  constructed  on  dif- 
ferent principles  is  avoided,  the  study  of  one  is  rendered  a  profitable 
introduction  to  the  study  of  another,  and  an  opportunity  is  furnished  to 
the  enquiring  student  of  comparing  the  languages  in  their  grammatical 
structure,  and  seeing  at  once  wherein  they  agree,  and  wherein  they 
differ.  The  whole  is  now  submitted  to  the  examination  and  favorable 
consideration  of  a  discerning  public. 

Albany  Academy,  Sept.  23,  1842. 


CONTENTS  OF  APPENDIX. 

I.  Grammar, 189 

II.  Classification  of  words, 191 

III.  Remarks  on  Different  Classes  of  Words 192 

IV.  Gramn)atical  Nomenclature, 202 

V.  Etymological  Glossary  of  Grammatical  terms,. .  .  204 

VI.  Explanation  of  French  Words  and  Phrases, 209 

VII.  Explanation  of  Latin  Words  and  Phrases, 211 

VIII.  Explanation  of  Law  terms, 213 


IJIRECTIONS  FOK  USING  THI.S  (;RAM.MAn. 

This  Grammar  beins  designed  for  the  usp  of  the  more  advaiicrd  tflifilar,  ns 
well  as  of  the  mere  hesiniier.  a  few  su.'llfstions,  iho  nsiilt  of  mime  experience, 
respertinp  the  mode  of  iiBiiip  it,  may  not  he  improper.  In  commeiicinc  any  slirdy, 
ttie  first  care  of  the  judicious  teaciier  will  hr  to  excit>-  a  proper  interest  in  it  in 
the  minds  of  his  pupils,  and  to  render  their  progress  as  easy  and  pleasant  as  ptm 
silde.  Without  this,  the  easies-t  and  most  eiigagins  studies  may  he  rendered 
irksome  and  disL'ustin';,  and  all  relish  f'>r,  as  well  as  progress  in  them  effectually 
prevented.  This  evil  will  be  avoided,  and  a  pr<'per  interest  in  the  study  of  Kii 
glisli  Grammar  e.vcited  and  maintained,  if  tlie  following  course  of  8iui:y'i,e  care- 
fully observed  : — 

1.  Very  younp  pupils,  or  mere  beginners  at  any  ag",  should  be  required  to  stu- 
dy only  the  hadiiifr  parts  which  are  generally  dislinguishcd  in  the  (Jrammar  by 
a  larger  type.  The  subordinate  parts  in  smaller  tvpe,  together  with  the  whole 
of  ^  2;  §  i'.)  from  No  -5  to 9;  and  the  Obs.  in  ^  20,il.2-:,  and  24  should  he  omit- 
ted till  afterwards.  And  in  order  to  vary  the  ex<  rcise,  from  ten  to  twenty  or  thir- 
ty words  of  §  32  may  be  given  with  each  lesson  from  the  beginning,  so  that  the 
whole  may  be  gone  tnrough  without  loss  of  time,  and  almost  without  an  r  Ifort. 

2.  No  Iarg<;r  portion  should  be  assigned  for  each  recitation  than  the  c!a.ss  can 
easily  master,  and  till  this  is  done,  a  new  portion  should  not  be  given  out. 

3.  The  portion  assigned  for  every  new  lesson  s!iould  be  read  over  to  the  class, 
and  explained,  if  necessary,  by  familiar  remarks  and  illustrations:  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  every  pupil  know,  before  he  is  sent  to  his  seat,  what  he  is 
expected  to  do  at  the  next  recitation,  and  kom  it  is  to  he  done.  A  little  pains 
taken  in  this  way  will  be  amply  rewarded  by  the  spirit  and  pleasure  with  which 
the  lesson  will  be  studie.l,  aiul  the  raidd  progress  tiiat  will  be  made. 

4.  All  rules  and  detinitions,  together  with  the  more  important  parts,  should 
be  accurately  committed  to  memory,  and  the  whole  wrought  into  the  uniler- 
slanding  as  well  as  the  memory  of  the  pupil,  by  qu  sliot.s  and  fainiiiar  illus- 
trations adapted  to  his  capacity  till  he  has  compl.  tely  mastered  it.  Tn  .iid  in 
this,  copious  Kxercises  have  l)een  intrnductd  throiighoui,  in  which  the  class 
should  be  drilled  till  every  thing  is  easy  and  familiar.  In  this  way  a  class  of  or- 
dinary capacity,  even  of  very  young  pupils,  may  be  carried  through  to  ^  39  in  the 
space  of  four  or  five  weeks  ;  and  of  those  more  advaticeil,  in  two  or  three. 

5.  The  acquisitions  made  in  every  new  lesson  should  be  rivelted  and  secured 
by  repeated  revisals.  It  takes  up  but  a  few  minutes,  and  is  attended  with  very 
great  advantage  to  begin  every  new  lesson,  or  every  other  one  with  a  rapid  re 
view  of  the  whole  from  the  beginning,  or  from  such  part  as  the  teacher  may 
direct. 

6.  Having  in  this  way  advanced  to  ^  S9,  the  pupil  is  prepared  to  commence 
Etymological  parsing,  for  which  directions  are  given  in  that  Section.  It  is  ne 
ccssary  he  should  be  expert  in  this  exercise  before  he  enter  on  Syntax.  To  aid 
in  this,  ample  directions  and  exercises  are  furnished  from  p.  75  to  p.  8.5. 

7.  In  the  study  of  Syntax,  the  same  course  in  general  should  be  pursued  as  in 
the  preceding  part.  At  first,  the  rule  at  the  top  of  the  page  only  should  be  com- 
mitted to  memory,  and  then  rendered  familiar  by  the  exercises  under  it.  The 
subordinate  rules  and  observations,  with  the  exercises  belonging  to  them,  wil 
be  studied  with  more  ease  and  advantage  on  a  subsequent  r.  visal.  When  this 
has  been  done,  he  will  be'  prepared  for  exercises  in  Syntactical  Parsing  and  Pro- 
miscuous Exercises  in  Syntax,  of  which  a  great  variety  is  furnished  in  $  8.5. 

8.  At  the  sam»  time  that  the  pupil  is  engaged  in  the  excrcis' s  just  mentioned, 
it  will  be  a  proper  time  to  study  the  whole  Grammar  in  course;  and  to  take  up 
in  his  progress  the  parts  formerly  omitted,  which,  from  the  acquirements  now 
made,  will  be  b'tter  appreciated  and  more  easily  mastered;  and  in  doing  this 
also,  repeated  revisals  should  not  be  neglected. 

The  study  of  English  Grammar,  prerecuted  in  this  way,  will  prove  both  p'eas- 
ing  and  profitable.  The  pupil,  knowing  what  he  is  doing,  and  elated  with  success, 
will  proceed  with  activity  and  cheerfulness;  and  in  a  comparatively  short  lim« 
wiJl  flnu  himself  a  good  geammariin. 


INDEX 

AND 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PARTI.    ORTHOGRAPHY. 

OfLetters, % 

OfSyllables, t 

Rules  for  spelling  words, S 

PART  11.    ETOIOLOGY. 
Words,  and  their  division  into  Parts  of  Speech,  .        .        .  6,7 

I.  Article,  of, 8 

Syntax  of, 127 

II.  Nouns,  different  kinds  of,  person  of,  ....  9 

Gender  of, 9 

Observations  on, 11 

Number,  rules  for  plural,       .        .        .        ,        .12 
Nouns  irregular  in  the  plural,      ,        .         13 

Observations  on, 14 

Cases, 16 

Nominative,  construction  of,        .        .      87,  88 

Possessive,  how  formed  ;  observations  on,        17 

Construction  of,     .         .  104,  105 

Objective,  governed  by  active  verbs,        .        90 

by  neuter  verbs,  .        .    90 

by  prepositions,        .        92 

Declension  of,        .  16 

Used  for  adjectives,  and  adjectives  for  nouns,      .        20 
Construction  of,  in  apposition,        ....  102 

III.  Adjectives,  definition  and  comparison  of,  Obs.  on,  .  18,  19 

Compared  irregularly, 20 

Construction  of,  .         .         .        .         97,  117 

of  comparative  &  superlative,  114,  115 


X  CONTENTS . 

Page. 

IV.  Paohovns,  defiiiition  and  division  of,         ....        21 

Personal,  declension  of.  and  observations  on,  .    22 

Construction  of,  ....         99 

Relative,  how  declined  and  applied,  .  .  .23 
Construction  of,  .        .         .        .100 

Interrogative,  how  applied, 25 

Adjective,  division  of,         .         .         .         .         •         25 

Possessive, 26 

Distributive, 26 

Construction  of,     .         .        .    97 

Demonstrative, 26 

Construction  of,  .  97,  98 
Indefinite, 27 

V.  VfcBBS,  definition  and  division  of, 29 

Concord  of,  with  its  nominative,         .         .         .  88,  89 
with  two  nouns,  .         .         .        93,  94 

with  nominatives  of  different  persons,        95 
with  a  collective  noun,         .        .         .96 

Transitive,  definition  of, 29 

Used  in  a  sense  allied  to  the  passive,  .     32 

Inflexion  of, 43 

Government  of, 90 

Passive,  definition  of, 33 

Inflexion  of,        .         .         .         .         .         .52 

When  followed  by  the  objective,      .        .         91 

Intransitive,    definition  and  characteristic  of,  .         .    29 

Have  no  passive  ;  how  made  transitive,  .         31 

When  used  actively,  .         .         .         .90 

Construction  of, 91 

Auxiliary,  what ;  observations  on,  ...     33 

To  be,  inflexion  of,        ....         48 

Construction  of,    .         .         .     89,   103 

Irregular,  definition  of;  list  of,  ...        60 

Defective,  definition  of ;  list  of,       .         .         .         .65 

Impersonal,  of, 65 

Moods,  definition  of, 35 

Uses  of ;  observations  on,     •        .        .  35,  36 

Indicative  and  subjunctive,  construction  ot.  Ill 

Infinitive,  character  of, .         .  37 

Construction  of,         .  HO 

Tenses,  definition,  division,  and  uses  o£  38 


CONTENTS.  XI 

Verbs  continued.  Page, 

Tenses,  Observations  on  ;  different  forms  of,  .     39 

Construction  of, 123 

Number  and  person, 42 

Exercises  on  active,  47  ;  to  be,  51;  passive,      .         56 

Participles,  definition  and  uses  of,  ...    57 

Observations  on,      ....         57 

VI.  Adverbs,  definition  and  use  of, 66 

Classes  of:  observations  on,     ....        67 
Position  and  construction  of,         .        .  116,  117,  118 

VII.  Prepositions,  definition  and  use  of,  list  of,     .        .        .        69 

Observations  and  exercises  on,    .        .        .70 
Construction  of,       ...         92,  119,  120 

VIII.  Conjunctions,  uses  of,  list  of, 70 

Observations  on, 70 

Construction  of, 112 

IX.  Interjections,  use  of,  list  of,  obs. on,   ....        71 

Construction  of, 119 

Parsing,  etymological,  definition  of, 71 

Specimens  of, 73 

Rules  for,  and  exercises  in,      .        .        .        75 
Syntactical  method  of,         .        .        .        .        .        .131 

Specimen  of,  .        .        •        *        .       133 

PART  III.    SYNTAX. 
Syntax,  general  principles  of,  parts  of,       ...        .      86,  87 

Rules  of, from  83  to  130 

Miscellaneous  obs.  on  certain  phrases,  .        .        .  145 

Improper  expressions,  a  list  of,  ...  149 

Punctuation,  rules  for,  &c 151 

Abbreviations, 157 

Paragraphs  and  capitals, 158 

Rhetorical  divisions  of  a  discourse,  ......       159 

Different  kinds  of  composition, .    160 

PART  IV.   PROSODY. 

Prosody,  division  of, .      163 

Elocution, •        .        .  163 

Versification, •        •        .163 

Figures  of  speech, 175 

Poetic  hcense,  .......       176 

Hints  for  correct  and  elegant  writing, 180 

Composition,  183.    Appendix, 189 


XII 


CONTENTS. 


ORDER  OF  THE  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

RuLR  I.               A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative, 
Special  niles  under  Rule  i. 
II.              A    trans,  verb  governs  the  objective  case, 
Special  rules  under  Rule  ii. 
Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case,     . 
Two  or  more  nouns  sing,  in  connexion, 
— — ■ taken  separately,     . 


III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXL 
XXII. 

xxni. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 
XXXIII. 

xxxrv. 


Page. 

.  88 
89 

.  90 
91 

.  92 
93 

.  94 
95 
96 
97 


A  verb  with  nominatives  of  different  persons, 
A  verb  with  a  collective  noun. 
Adjectives  of  number,  the  pron.  this  and  that, 
When  two  persons  or  things  are  contrasted,  &c.  98 
Pronouns  agree  with  the  nouns,  &c.  .  .  99 
The  relative  agrees  with  its  antecedent,  .  .  100 
Special  rules  and  observations  under  Rule  xi.  101 
Substantives  signifying  the  same  thing,  &c.  .  102 
A  verb  may  have  the  same  case  after  it  as  before,  103 

The  possessive  case, 104 

When  the  present  participle  is  used  as  a  noun,  107 
The  present  participle  with  an  article  before  it,  lOS 
The  perfect  participle  is  used  after  have  and  be,  109 
One  verb  governs  another  in  the  infinitive,  110 

The  subjunctive  mood, 1 1 1 

Conjunctions  couple  the  same  moods  and  . 

tenses,  &c. 112 

Some  conjunctions  have  corresponding  conjunct.  113 
Comparative  degree  and  the  pronoun  other,  114 
Double  comparatives  and  superlatives,  .       115 

Adverbs  modify  verbs,  &c.  .  hq 

Adverbs  are  for  the  most  part  placed,  &c.  117 

Two  negatives  in  the  same  sentence,  .  .118 
Prepositions  before  names  of  places,  .  .  119 
Certain  words  and  phrases  must  be  followed,  &c  120 
In  the  use  of  verbs,  &c. ;  the  order  of  time,  &c.  123 
When  a  member  of  a  sentence  refers  to  two 

different  clauses,  it  should  be,  &c.       .        .125 

Case  absolute, 126 

The  article  .4,  &c 127 

An  eUipsis  is  admissible  when,  &c  .  .  129 
An  ellipsis  is  not  allowable  when,  &c.  .  .130 
Miscellaneous  observations,         .        .       t      145 


GRAMMAR. 


Grammar  is  both  a  Science  and  an  Art. 

As  a  Science,  it  investigates  the  principles  of  language 
in  general.  When  thus  used,  it  is  denominated  General 
or  Universal  Grammar  ;  and  sometimes  Comparative 
Grammar. 

As  an  Art,  it  teaches  the  right  method  of  applying  these 
principles  to  a  particular  language,  so  as  thereby  to  express 
our  thoughts  in  a  correct  and  proper  manner,  according  to 
established  usage 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

English  Grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and 
writing  the  English  Language  with  propriety. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts  ;  namely,  Orthogra- 
phy ^  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody, 

PART  FIRST. 
§  1.     ORTHOGRAPHY. 

ORTlfOGRAPHY  teachcs  the  nature  and  powers  of  Let- 
ters, and  the  correct  method  of  spelling  words. 

A  Letter  is  a  character  representing  a  particular  sound  of  the  hu 
man  voice. 

2  A 


2  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  ^  1. 

There  are  Twenty-six  letters  in  the  English  Alphabet. 

Letters  are  either  Vowels  or  Consonants. 

A  Vowel  is  a  letter  which  represents  a  simple  inarticulate 
sound  ;  and  in  a  word  or  syllable  may  be  sounded  alone.  They 
are,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  w  and  y,  not  beginning  a  syllable. 

A  Consonant  is  a  letter  which  represents  an  articulate 
sound  ;  and  in  a  word  or  syllable  is  never  sounded  alone,  but 
always  in  connexion  with  a  vowel.  They  are,  b,  c,  d,  f,  g, 
h,  j,  k,  I,  m,  n,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  v,  x,  z,  and  w  and  y  beginning  a 
syllable. 

A  Diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  sound.  They 
are  of  two  kinds,  proper  and  improper. 

A  Proper  Diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  the  vowels  are 
sounded,  as  ou  in  out ;  oi  in  oil;  ow  in  cow. 

An  Improper  Diphthong  or  digraph  is  one  in  which  cnly 
one  of  the  vowels  is  sounded,  as  ou  in  court,  oa  in  boat. 

A  Triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one  sound  as 
eau  in  beauty. 

The  powers  of  letters. 

In  analyzing  words  into  their  elementary  sounds,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  distinguish  between  the  name  of  a  letter  and  its  power. 

The  name  of  a  letter  is  that  by  which  it  is  usually  called  ; 
as  A,  be,  se,  de,  &c. 

The  power  of  a  letter  is  the  effect  which  it  has,  either  by 
itself  or  combined  with  other  letters,  in  forming  a  word  or  syl- 
lable. 

Note.  All  the  vowels  have  each  several  powers. — Several 
letters  have  the  same  power, — and  certain  powers  or  elements 
of  words  are  represented  by  a  combination  of  two  letters. 

The  elementary  powers  or  sounds  in  the  English  language 
are  ahout  forty ,  and  are  divided  into  Vocals,  Subvocals,  and 
Aspirates. 

Vocals  are  inarticulate  sounds  produced  by  the  organs  of 
voice,*  with  the  mouth  more  or  less  open,  and  with  no,  or  but 
slight  change  of  position  in  the  organs  of  speech. 

*  The  Organs  of  voice  are  those  parts  (called  by  physiologists  the  Larynx 
and  its  appendages)  which  are  employed  in  the  production  of  sifnple  vocal 
sounds. 

The  Organs  of  speech  are  those  parts  employed  to  articulate  or  modify 
whispering  or  vocal  sounds.    These  are  the  tongue,  lips,  teeth,  and  palate. 


§1. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


Spbvocals  are  sounds  produced  by  the  organs  of  voice, 
articulated  or  modified  by  certain  changes  in  the  position  of 
the  organs  of  speech. 

Aspirates  are  mere  whispering  sounds  without  Vocality, 
but  which  still  have  an  audible  effect  in  the  enunciation  of 
words.     They  are  all  articulate,  except  h. 

The  elementary  powers  of  letters  cannot  be  exhibited  to  the 
eye,  but  must  be  learned  from  the  living  voice. 

The  NAME  of  a  vowel  is  always  one  of  its  powers  (except 
w  and  y,)  and  if  from  the  name  of  a  consonant  we  take  away 
the  vowel  sound,  what  remains  is  generally  the  power  of  that 
consonant,  except  w  and  y. 

A  full  view  of  the  elementary  powers  of  letters  in  the  forma- 
tion of  words  is  exhibited  in  the  following  table.  In  the 
words  annexed  as  examples,  the  letter  whose  power  is  indi- 
cated is  printed  in  Italic.  By  pronouncing  the  word  distinctly, 
and  then  leaving  out  all  but  the  power  of  the  Italic  letter,  and 
uttering  that  alone,  we  have  the  power  of  that  letter. 

Table  of  Elementary  Sounds  in  the  English  Language. 


Vocals. 

SUBVOCALS. 

Aspirates. 

A. 

ale,  able. 

B. 

bat,  orb. 

F.   /ix. 

A. 

art. 

D. 

do,   did. 

H.    hat. 

A. 

all. 

G. 

gone,  dog. 

K.    keep,  booA:, 

A. 

at. 

J. 

judge. 

P.    pen,  top. 

E. 

me. 

L. 

lie. 

S.    sun. 

E. 

met,  egg. 

M. 

man. 

T.    ^op,  hsit. 

I. 

ire. 

N. 

no. 

Th.  Mth. 

I. 

in. 

NG. 

xing. 

Sh.  show. 

0. 

old. 

R.* 

rope,  far. 

Ch.  cAide. 

0. 

move. ooze. 

Th. 

this,. 

Wh.  when. 

0. 

odd. 

V. 

van. 

U. 

tune,  use. 

W. 

we. 

U. 

Mp. 

Y. 

yes. 

U. 

Ml 

Z. 

zinc. 

Ou. 

.  tho?^. 

Z. 

azure. 

*  R  before  a  vowel  has  a  hard  or  trilling  sound  ;  as :  rat. 
rough: — After  a  vowel,  a  soft  and  liquid  sound,  as  :  arm.,  far ^ 


ENfJLlSII  GRAMMAR. 


§1. 


Certain  letters  in  the  English  Alphabet  have  the  same 
power  as  others  in  the  above  table,  and  may  therefore  be 
called  Equivalents  Equivalents  of  vowels  and  diphthongs  are 
numerous. 

Of  the  Subvocals  and  Aspirates  eight  pairs  are  Correlatives. 
In  sounding  the  first  of  any  of  these  pairs,  the  organs  of  voice 
and  speech  are  in  the  same  position  as  in  sounding  its  fellow, 
but  the  first,  or  subvocal,  has  vocality  ;  the  second,  or  aspi- 
rate, has  not. 

Table  of  Equivalents  and  Correlatives, 


Equivalents. 

Correlatives. 

Subvocals, 

Aspirates. 

W         =  u    C070,  xneic. 

V.    vow. 

F.     fame. 

Y           =  i      tyrant,  sys- 
tem. 

G.    gone. 
B.    bat. 

K.    keep. 
P.     pen. 

C  hard  =  k    cat. 

Z.     zinc. 

S.     sin. 

Q          =  k    liguor. 
C  soft    =  s     cent. 

D.    do. 
Th.  this. 

T.    top. 
Th.  thick. 

G  soft    =  j      ^in. 

Z.     azure. 

Sh.  show. 

X          =  ks  fia;. 

J.     judge. 

Ch.  chide. 

SYLLABLES. 

A  Syllable  is  a  distinct  sound  forming  the  whole  of 
a  word,  as  :  far ;  or  so  much  of  it  as  can  be  sounded 
at  once,  as  :  far  in  farmer, 

A  word  contains  as  many  sj'^llables  as  it  has  distinct 
vocal  sounds  ;  as  :  gravi-ma-ri-an. 

A  Monosyllable  is  a  word  of  one  syllable ;  as :  fox. 
A  Dissyllable  is  a  word  of  two  syllables ;  as :  farmer. 
A  Trisyllable  is  a  word  of  three  syllables ;  as :  piety, 
A  Polysyllable  is  a  word  of  many  syllables. 


§2.  ORTHOGRAPHY.  5 

^  2.     SPELLING. 
Spelling  is  the   art   of  expressing   a  word  by  its 
proper  letters,  and  rightly  dividing  it  into  syllables. 

The  Orthography  of  the  English  language  is  so  anomalous, 
and  in  many  cases  arbitrary,  that  proficiency  in  it  can  be 
acquired  only  by  practice  and  the  use  of  the  Spelling  book  or 
Dictionary. — The  following  rules  are  of  a  general  character, 
though  even  to  these  there  may  be  a  few  exceptions. 

RULES  FOR  SPELLING  WORDS. 

Rule  L  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the 
last  syllable,  ending  with  a  single  consonant  preceded 
by  a  short  vowel,  double  that  consonant  before  an  ad- 
ditional syllable  beginning  v/ith  a  vowel ;  as,  rob, 
robber ;  admit,  admittance,  admitted.  Except  x  and  k, 
which  are  never  doubled. 

But  when  a  diphthong  precedes,  or  the  accent  is  not 
on  the  last  syllable,  the  consonant  is  not  doubled;  as, 
boil,  boili?ig,  boiler ;  visit,  visited. 

Rule  H.  Words  ending  with  II  generally  drop  one  I 
before  the  terminations  ness,  less,  ly,  and  full;  as, 
fulness,  skilless,  fully,  skilful. 

Rule  IIL  "Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  con- 
sonant, change  y  into  i  before  an  additional  letter  or 
syllable;  as,  spy,  spies;  happy,  happier,  happiest; 
carry,  carrier,  carried  ;  fancy,  fanciful. 

Exception  \.  But  y  is  not  changed  before  ing ;  as, 
deny,  denying. 

Exception  IL  Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
retain  the  y  unchanged;  as,  boy,  boys,  boyish,  boyhood. 

Exceptions.    Lay,  pay,  say,  make  laid,  paid,  said. 

Other  rules  for  spelling  are  encumbered  with  so  many  ex- 
ceptions as  to  render  them  nearly  useless.  They  are  therefore 
omitted. 


PART  SECOND. 
§  3.     ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology    treats    of    the    different    sorts    of 
words,  their  various   modifications,   and   their  de 
rivations. 

Words  are  certain  articulate  sounds  used  by 
common  consent  as  signs  of  our  ideas. 

1.  Words,  in  respect  of  their  Formation,  are 
either  Primitive  or  Derivative,  Simple  or  Com- 
pound. 

A  Primitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  derived  from  any  other  word 
in  the  language  ;  as,  boy,  just,  father. 

A  Derivative  word  is  one  that  is  derived  from  some  other  word  ;  as, 
boyish,  justice,  fatherly. 

A  Simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  combined  with  any  other  word  ; 
as,  vian,  house,  city. 

A  Compound  word  is  one  that  is  made  up  of  two  or  more  simple 
words  ;  as,  manhood,  horseman. 

2.  Words,  in  respect  of  Form,  aie  either  De 
clinable  or  Indeclinable. 

A  Declinuble  word  is  one  which  undergoes  certain  changes  of  fwm 
or  termination,  to  express  the  different  relations  of  gender,  number, 
case,  person,  &c.  usually  termed  in  Grammar  Accidents  ;  as,  man, 
men  ;   love,  loves,  loved. 

w3»i  Indeclinable  word  is  one  which  undergoes  no  change  of  form  ; 
as,  good,  some,  perhaps. 

3.  In  respect  of  Signification  and  Use,  words  are 
divided  into  different  classes,  called 


3. 


ETYMOLOOr. 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 


The  Parts  of  Speech  in  the  EngUsh  language  are 
lane,  viz.  The  Article,  Noun,  Adjective,  Pronoun, 
Verb,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Interjection  and  Con- 
junction. 

Of  these  the  Noun,  Pronoun,  and  Verb  are  de- 
chned,  the  rest  are  indedinable. 

Qt/ESr/OJVS.* 

What  is  English  Grammar?  Into  huic  7nany parts  is  it  divided? 
Mention  them.  What  is  Orthography?  What  is  a  letter?  How 
many  letters  are  there  in  English?  How  are  they  divided?  "What 
is  a  vowel  ? — a  consonant  ?  Name  the  vowels.  When  are  w  and  y 
vowels  ?  When  consonants  ?  What  is  a  diphthong  ? — a  proper 
diphthong? — an  improper  diphthong? — a  triphthong?  What  is  a 
Syllable  ?  What  is  a  word  of  one  Syllable  termed  ? — of  two  7 — of 
three  ? — of  four  or  more  ? 

(§  2.)   What  is  spelling  ?     Repeat  the  rules. 

(§  3.)  What  does  Etymology  treat  of?  What  are  icords  ?  How 
may  words  he  classed  in  respect  of  their  Formation  ?  What  is  a  pri- 
mitive word  ? — a  derivative  word  ? — a  simple  word  ? — a  compound 
word  ?  How  may  words  he  classed  in  respect  of  Form  ?  What  is  a 
declinable  word  ? — an  indeclinable  word  ?  How  many  parts  of 
SPEECH  are  there  in  English  ?  J^amp  them.  Which  of  these  are  de- 
clinable ?     Which  are  indeclinable  ? 


*  The  list  of  (]\iestions  subjoined  at  intervals  is  not  intended  for  ths  use,  much 
less  for  tlic  direction,  of  tlie  teacher,  who,  if  competent,  will  always  put  such 
questions  to  the  pupil  as  will  enable  him  to  ascertain  whether  he  understands 
what  he  has  stu<tied,  or  to  draw  his  attention  to  any  particular  point  which  he 
may  wish  to  illustrate  at  greater  length.  The  principal  design  of  their  insertion 
is  to  exercise  the  judgment  of  the  pupil  in  his  private  studies  in  finding  appro- 
priate answers, — to  enable  him  the  better  to  prepare  his  lessons  by  suggesting 
such  questions  as  are  likely  to  be  asked, — and  to  furnish  a  test  whether  he  is 
sufficiently  prepared  for  recitation,  which  he  cannot  be  unless  he  can  furnish  a 
correct  and  prompt  answer  to  the  questions  proposed.  They  may  also  prove  use- 
ful in  schools  conducted  on  the  monitorial  plan  as  a  guide  to  the  Monitor.  That 
the  correct  answer  may  be  more  readily  found,  the  sections  ($)  to  which  the 
questions  refer  are  marked ;  those  which  refer  to  the  teit  or  large  print,  are 
printed  in  Italics ;  and  those  which  refer  to  the  notes  and  observations,  in  Uie 
ordinary  Roman  letter. 


8  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  ^  4. 

§  4.     I.  OF  THE  ARTICLES. 

An  article  is  a  word  put  before  a  noun,  to  show 
the  extent  of  its  meaning ;  as,  a  man,  the  man. 

There  are  two  Articles,  A  or  AN,  and  THE. 

A  or  AN  is  called  the  Indefinite  Article,  because 
it  does  not  point  out  a  particular  person  or  thing ; 
as,  A  king  ;  that  is,  any  king. 

THE  is  called  the  Definite  Article,  because  it  re- 
fers to  a  particular  person  or  thing ;  as.  The  king  ; 
i.  e.  some  2)articnlar  king. 

A  noun  without  an  Article  to  limit  it  is  taken  in 
Its  widest  sense ;  as,  Man  is  m,ortal,  i.  e.  All  man- 
kind : — Or  in  an  indefinite  sense ;  as,  There  are 
men  destitute  of  all  shame,  i.  e.  some  men.  §  81. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
1.  ^  is  used  before  a  Con%c.-ant ;  as,  a  book. 
An  is  used  before  a  Vowel  or  silent  h  ;  as,  aji  age 
an  hour.     But  > 

»4  and  not  .^n  is  used  before  u  lop^.^  and^the  diphthong  eu,  because 
these  letters  have,  combined  with  tkiAr  sound,  tlie  prtwer  of  initial  y  ; 
thus,  a  unit,  a  use,  a  eulogy.  (jy<:*tlie  other  hand,  ..In  is  used  before 
words  beginning  with  h  sounded,  ^wlien  the  accent;  is  on  the  second 
syllable ;  as,  an  heroic  action,  an  historictd  account ;  because  the  h  ia 
8uch  words  is  but  slightly  sounded-  " 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  ARTICLES.  ' 

Prefix  the  Indefinite  article  to  the  words.,  river,  hope, 
army,  hermit,  infant,  uncle,  humour,  usurper,  hostler,  wish, 
youth,  umbrage,  oyster,  herb,  thought,  honour,  elephant, 
husband. 

Correct  what  follows,  and  give  a  reason  fior  the  change. 
A  inkstand,  an  handful,  a  article,  a  humble  man,  an  ewe, 
a  anchor,  an  useful  book,  an  history,  an  humorous  tale,  an 
hedge,  an  union.  . 


§5,6.  ETYMOLOGY.  9 

^5.   OF  NOUNS. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  thing ;  as,  Johuj  London^ 
hook.    Nouns  are  of  two  kinds,  Proper  and  Common. 

A  Proper  JVoun  is  the  name  applied  to  an  indivi- 
dual only  ;  as  Albany,  Washington^  the  Hudson. 

A  Common  JVoun  is  a  name  applied  to  all  things 
of  the  same  sort ;  as,  Tnan^  chair ^  table,  book. 

Remark. — Proper  nouns  distinguish  individuals  of  the  same 
class  from  each  other. — Common  nouns  distinguish  sor<s  or  classes, 
and  are  equally  applicable  to  all  things  of  the  same  class. 

Obs.  1.  Proper  nouns  denoting  persons  usually  become  common 
by  having  an  article  prefixed;  as,  "  He  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age." 

Obs.  2.  Common  nouns  become  Proper  when  personified,  and 
also  when  used  as  proper  names;  as,  Hail  Liberty  !     The  Park. 

Obs.  3.  Under  Common  nouns  are  usually  ranked, 

1st.  Collective  nouns,  or  nouns  of  multitude,  which  signify  many 
in  the  singular  number;  as,  army,  people. 

2d.  jlbstract  nouns,  ovnn.mes  of  qna-lities;  bs, piety,  wickedness. 

3d.  Verbal  nouns,  or  the  names  of  actions,  or  states  of  being  ; 
as,  reading,  writing,  sleeping.     §  30,  7. 

To  Nouns  belong  Person,  Gender,  JVumber,  and 
Case. 

\  6.  OF  PERSON. 

Person,  in  grammar,  is  the  relation  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun  to  what  is  said  in  discourse.  There  are 
three  persons,  i\ie:  first,  second,  and  third. 

The  First  person  denotes  the  speaker  or  writer ; 
as,  "  I  Paul  have  written  it." 

The  Second  denotes  the  person  addressed ;  as, 
"  Thou  God  seest  me." 

The  Third  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of; 
as,  "  Th-uth  is  mighty."  See  Appendix,  III.  2.    1st. 


10 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


^7. 


§  7.  OF  GENDER. 
Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  with  regard  to 
Sex.     There  are  three  genders,  the  Masculine,  Femi- 
nine and  JVeuter.     App.  III.  2.    2d. 

The  Masculine  Gender  denotes  the  male  sex  ;  as, 


Ji 


a  boy. 


The  Feminine  Gender  denotes  the  female  sex ; 
as,  ^  woman,  a  girl. 

The  JVeuter  Gender  denotes  whatever  is  without 
sex  ;  as.  Milk. 

There  are  three  ways  of  distinguishing  the  sex. 
1.    By  different  words  ;  as, 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Bachelor 

maid 

Horse 

mare 

Beau 

belle 

Husband 

wife 

Boy 

girl 

King 

queen 

Brother 

sister 

Lord 

lady 

Buck 

doe 

Man 

woman 

BuU 

cow 

Master 

mistress 

Drake 

duck 

Nephew 

niece 

Earl 

countes'i* 

Ram,  buck 

ewe 

Father 

mother 

Son 

daughter 

Friar 

nun 

Stag 

hind 

Gander 

goose 

Uncle 

aunt 

Hart, 

roe 

Wizzard 

witch 

2.    By 

a  difference  of  Termination  ;  as. 

Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

A-bbot 

abbess 

Bridegroom 

bride 

A.ctor 

actress 

Benefactor 

benefactress 

A.dministrator 

administratrix 

Count 

countess 

^.dulterer 

adulteress 

Deacon 

deaconess 

Ambassador 

ambassadress 

Duke 

dutchess 

Arbiter 

arbitress 

Elector 

electress 

Author  (often) 

authoress 

Emperor 

empress 

Baron              ^ 

baroness 

Enchanter 

enchantrew 

9  7. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

1 

Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Executor 

executrix 

Prince 

princess 

Governor 

governess 

Prior 

prioress 

Heir 

heiress 

Prophet 

prophetess 

Hero 

heroine 

Protector 

protectress 

Hunter 

huntress 

Shepherd 

shepherdess 

Host 

hostess 

Songster 

songstress 

Jew 

Jewess 

Sorcerer 

sorceress 

Landgrave 

landgravine 

Sultan 

1 1  sultana,  or  sul 
, '      taness 

Lion 

lioness 

Marquis 

marchioness 

Tiger 

tigress 

Mayor 

mayoress 

Traitor 

traitress 

Patron 

patroness 

Tutor 

tutoress 

Peer 

peeress 

Viscount 

viscountess 

Poet 

poetess 

Votary 

votaress 

Priest 

priestess 

Widower 

widow 

3.     By  prefixing  another  word ;  as, 

A  cock  sparrow.  A  hen  sparrow 


A  he  goat. 
A  man  servant 
A  male  child. 
Male  descendants. 


A  she  goat. 
A  maid  servant 
A  female  child. 
Female  descendants. 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  GENDER. 

1.  Some  nouns  are  either  moscM^nie  or  feminine;  such  as,  parenf, 
child,  cousin,  infant,  servant,  neighbor.  Such  are  sometimes  said  to  bo 
of  the  commo)i  gender. 

2.  Some  nouns  naturally  neuter  are  converted  by  a  figure  of  speech 
into  the  masculine  or  feminine;  as  when  we  say  of  the  sun,  He  is  set- 
ting ; — of  the  moon,  She  is  eclipsed  ;  and  of  a  ship,  She  sails. 

3.  In  speaking  of  animals  whose  sex  is  not  known  to  us,  or  not  re« 
garded,  we  assign  the  masculine  gender  to  those  distinguished  for 
boldness,  fidelity,  generosity,  size,  strength,  &c,  as  the  dog,  the  horse, 
the  elephant  Thus  we  say, "  The  dog  is  remarkably  various  in  his  spe- 
cies." On  the  other  hand,  we  assign  the  feminine  gender  to  animals 
characterized  by  weakness  ^nd  timidity ;  as,  the  hare,  the  cat,  &C., 
thus,  "  The  cat,  as  she  beholds  the  light,  draws  the  ball  of  her  eye 
small  and  long." 

4.  In  speaking  of  animals,  particularly  those  of  inferior  size,  we  ft^ 


12  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  ^  8. 

quently  consider  them  devoid  of  sex.    Thus,  of  an  infant,  we  say  "  // 
IS  a  lovely  creature ;" — of  a  cat,  "  //  is  cruel  to  Us  enemy." 

5.  When  the  male  and  female  are  expressed  by  distinct  terms ;  aa, 
shepherd,  shepherdess,  the  masculine  term  has  also  a  general  meaning, 
expressing  both  male  and  female,  and  is  always  to  be  used  when  the 
office,  occupation,  profession,  &c.,  and  not  the  sex  of  the  individual,  is 
chiefly  to  be  expressed.  The  feminine  term  is  used  only  when  thedis 
crimination  of  sex  is  indispensably  necessary.  Thus,  when  it  is  said 
"  the  Poets  of  this  country  are  distinguished  by  correctness  of  taste," 
the  term  "Poet"  clearly  includes  both  male  and  female  writers  of 
poetry. 

§  8.  OF  NUMBER. 

Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  by  which  it 
expresses  one,  or  more  than  one.  Nouns  have  two 
numbers,  the  Singular  and  the  Plural.  The  Sin- 
gular denotes  one  ;  the  Plural  more  than  one. 

GENERAL  RULE. 

The  plural  is  commonly  formed  by  adding  s  to  the 
singular,  as  hook.^  hooks. 

♦"^^     SPECIAL  RULES. 

1.  Nouns  in  5,  sh,  ch  soft,  x,  or  0,  form  the  plural 
by  adding  es  ;  as,  Miss,  Misses  ;  brush,  brushes  ; 
match,  m,atches  ;  fox,  foxes  /  hero,  heroes. 

Exc.  Nouns  in  eo  and  io,  with  junto,  canto,  tyro,  grotto,  portico, 
Bolo,halo,quarto,  have  s  only  ;  as/cameo,  cameos ;  folio,  folios  ;  junto, 
juntos,  &c.     Also  nouns  in  ch  sounding  k  ;  as,  monarch,  monarchs. 

2.  Nouns  in  y  after  a  consonant,  change  y  into  ies 
in  the  plural ;  as,  lady,  ladies. 

Nouns  in  y  after  a  vowel,  foUow  the  general  rule ; 
as  day,  days.  §  2.  R.  III. 

3.  Nouns  in/or/e,  change  /  or /e  into  ves  in  the 
plural ;  as,  loaf,  loaves ;  life,  lives. 

Exc.  Dvirarf,  scarf,  wharf;  brief,  chie^gief;  kerchief,  handkerchief, 


§9.  ETYMOLOGY.  13 

mischief ;  gulf,  turf,  surf ;— fife,  strife ;— proof,  hoof,  roof,  reproof,  follow 
the  general  rule.  Also  nouns  in  ff  have  their  plural  in  s;  as,  muff, 
muffs ;  except  staff,  which  has  sometimes  staves;  so  wharf,  wharves. 

EXERCISES  ON  NUMBER. 

Give  the  plural,  and  the  rule  for  forming  it,  of — Fox,  book, 
leaf,  candle,  hat,  loaf,  wish,  fish,  sex,  box,  coach,  inch, 
sky,  bounty,  army,  duty,  knife,  echo,  loss,  cargo,  wife,  story, 
church,  table,  glass,  study,  calf,  branch,  street,  potato, 
peach,  sheaf,  booby,  rock,  stone,  house,  glory,  hope,  flower, 
city,  difficulty,  distress,  wolf. 

Day,  bay,  relay,  chimney,  journey,  valley,  needle, 
enemy ;  an  army,  a  vale,  an  ant,  a  valley,  the  hill,  the  sea, 
a  key,  a  toy,  monarch,  tyro,  grotto,  nuncio,  punctilio,  em- 
bryo, gulf,  handkerchief,  hoof,  staff,  mufi^  cUff,  whiff,  cuff, 
ruir. 

Of  what  number  is — Book,  trees,  plant,  shrub,  globes, 
hills,  river,  scenes,  stars,  planets,  toys,  home,  fancy,  mosses, 
glass,  state,  foxes,  house,  prints,  spoon,  bears,  lilies,  roses, 
churches,  glove,  silk,  skies,  berries,  peach  ? 

§  9.     NOUNS  IRREGULAR  IN  THE  PLURAL. 

Some  nouns  are  irregular  in  the  formation  of  their  plural ;  such  as, 


Sing^dar. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

PluraL 

Man 

men 

Tooth 

teeth 

Woman 

women 

Goose 

geese 

Child 

children 

Mouse 

mice 

Foot 

feet 

Louse 

lice 

Ox 

oxen 

Penny 

pence 

But  penny,  meaning  the  coin,  has  the  plural  pennies. 

Note.  Words  compounded  of  man,  vxrman,  &c.  form  the  plural 
like  the  simple  word ;  as  Footman,  footmen ;  Boatman,  boatmen ; 
Washerwoman,  washerwomen,  &c. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Brother  (one  of  the  same  family)  brothers 

Brother  (one  of  the  same  society)  brethren 
3 


14 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


§10. 


Sow  or  swine 
Die  (for  gaming) 
Die  (for  coining) 
Aid-de-camp 
Court-martial 
Cousin-german 
Father-in-law,  &c. 


sows  or  swinc 

dici; 

dies 

aids-de-camp 

courts-martial 

cousins-german 

fathers-in-law,  &c. 


Words  from  foreign  languages  sometimes  retain  their  original  plu- 
ral. As  a  general  rule,  nouns  in  urn  or  on  have  a  in  the  plural ;  but 
those  in  is  in  the  singular,  change  it  into  es  in  the  plural.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  common  : 


Animalculum 

Antithesis 

Apex 

Appendix 

Arcanum 

Automaton 

Axis 

Basis 

Calx 

Cherub 

Crisis 

Criterion 

Datum 

Desideratum 

Effluvium 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 

Encomium 

Erratum 

Focus 

Genus 


animalcula 

antitheses 

apices 

j  appendixes 
[  appendices 

arcana 

automata 

axes 

bases 

calces 
\  cherubim 
\  cherubs 

crises 

criteria 

data 

desiderata 

effluvia 

ellipses 

emphases 
{  encomia 
f  encomiums 

errata 

foci 
genera 


.  genii 


Genius  (an  aerial 

spirit) 

Hypothesis  hypotheses 

Ignis  fatuus  ignes  fatui 

Index  (a  pointer)  indexes 
Index  (in  algebra)  indices 
Lamina  laminae 

Magus  magi 

Memorandum      memoranda 
Metamorphosis    metamorphoses 


Monsieur 
Phenomenon 
Radius 
Stamen 

Seraph 

Stimulus 

Stratum 

Vertex 

Vortex 

Virtuoso 

Mr  (master) 


messieurs 

phenomena 

radii 

stamina 
I  seraphs 
I  seraphim 

stimuli 

strata 

vertices 

vortices 

virtuosi 

Messrs  (mes- 
sieurs) 


§  10.    OBSERVATIONS  ON  NUMBER. 

1.  Proper  names  have  the  plural,  only  when  they  refer  to  a  race  or 
family ;  as,  the  SttwarU,  the  Campbells ;  or  to  several  persons  of  the 


§  10.  ErrMOLOoY.  15 

same  name ;  as,  the  twelve  Ccesars,  the  two  Mr.  Bells,  the  two  Miss 
Browns.    But  without  the  numeral,  or  in  addressing  letters  in  which 
both  or  all  are  equally  concerned,  and  also  when  the  names  are  dif- 
ferent, we  pluralize  the  title  (Mr.  or  Miss)  ;  as,  Misses  Brown,  Messrs 
Webster  &  Skinner.     See  §  60,  Rem.  1. 

2.  Names  of  metals,  virtues,  vices,  and  things  that  are  weighed  or 
measured,  are  for  the  most  part  confined  to  the  singular  number ;  as 
gold,  meekness,  temperance,  bread,  beer,  beef,  &c.  Except  when  dif- 
ferent sorts  are  meant ;  as,  wines,  teas.  Sic. 

3.  Some  nouns  are  used  in  the  plura.  only ;  such  as  annals,  anti- 
podes, literati,  credenda,  minutiae,  banditti,  uata  ;  and  things  consisting 
of  two  parts,  as  bellows,  scissors,  pliers,  tongs,  lungs,  &c. ;  or  of  more 
than  two,  as  ashes,  embers,  entrails,  clothes.  Sac. 

Note.  For  the  singular  of  literati,  the  expression,  "  one  of  the  literati," 
is  used  ;  and  bandit  is  sometimes  used  as  the  singular  of  banditti. 

4.  Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers ;  as  hose,  deer,  sheep,  swine, 
trout,  salmon,  tench ;  apparatus,  hiatus,  series,  species ;  brace,  dozen, 
head,  couple,  score,  pair,  hundred,  thousand,  &c. 

Note.  Brace,  dozen,  &c.  have  sometimes  a  plural  form ;  as,  He 
bought  partridges  in  braces,  and  books  in  scores  and  dozens.  Cannon, 
shot,  and  sail,  are  used  in  a  plural  sense.  Foot,  horse,  infantry,  and 
sometimes  cavalry,  meaning  bodies  of  foot,  &c.  are  construed  with  a 
plural  verb.  The  singular  of  sheep,  deer,  &c.  is  distinguished  by 
the  article  a ;  as,  a  sheep,  a  deer. 

5.  Some  words  are  plural  in  /wm,  but  in  constmctimi  either  singu« 
!ar  or  plural ;  such  as  amends,  means,  news,  riches,  pains;  and  the 
names  of  certain  sciences,  as  mathematics,  metaphysics,  ethics,  politics, 
optics,  &c. 

Note.  Means,  when  it  points  out  the  instrumentality  of  one  agent, 
is  construed  as  singular ;— of  more  than  one,  as  plural.  Mean,  in  the 
singular  form,  is  commonly  used  to  signify  a  middle  between  two  ex- 
tremes. .N'ews  is  now  generally  construed  in  the  singular  number. 
jilms  (almesse,  Fr.)  is  properly  singular,  though  ending  in  s,  and  ia 
perhaps  always  so  used.  Riches  (richesse,  Fr.)  of  similar  derivation, 
is  singular  or  plural.  Thanks  is  considered  a  plural  noun,  though 
used  to  denote  one  expression  of  gratitude.  Thank  occurs  in  the  New 
Testament:  " What  thank  have  ye ?" 

EXERCISES  ON  IRREGULAR  NOTTNS  AND  OBSERVATIONS,  &C. 

Give  the  ■plurcH  of — Man,  foot,  penny,  mouse,  ox,  child 


6  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §11. 

father-in-law,  son-in-law,  brother ;  erratum,  radius,  lamina, 
automaton,  phenomenon,  stratum,  axis,  ellipsis,  stamen, 
index,  cherub,  seraph. 

Of  what  number  is — Dice,  arcana,  fishermen,  geese, 
dormice,  alms,  riches,  thanks,  snuffers,  tongs,  teeth, 
woman,  child,  court-martial,  apparatus,  minutiae,  genii, 
geniuses,  indices,  indexes,  mathematics,  Matthew,  James, 
John? 

§  11.     OF  THE  CASES  OF  NOUNS. 

Case  is  the  state  or  condition  of  a  noun  with  re- 
spect to  the  other  words  in  a  sentence. 

Nouns  have  three  cases,  viz.  the  Nominative, 
Possessive,  and  Objective. 

The  Nominative  case  expresses  that  of  which 
something  is  said  or  declared ;  as,  the  sun  shines. 

The  Possessive  denotes  that  to  which  something 
belongs  ;  as,  the  lady^s  fan. 

The  Objective  denotes  the  object  of  some  action 
or  relation ;  as,  James  assists  Thom,as  ;  they  live  in 
Albany. 

The  nominative  and  objective  are  alike. 

The  possessive  singular  is  formed  by  adding  an 
apostrophe  and  s  to  the  nominative  j  as,  John's. 

When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  possessive  is  form- 
ed by  adding  an  apostrophe  only. 

NOUNS   ARE    THUS  DECLINED  : 

Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

Norn,  Lady  Ladies  John  

Poss.  Lady's         Ladies'  John's  

Obj.  Lady  Ladies  John  -^— 

Proper  names  generally  want  the  plural.     See  §  10,  1. 


§  12.  ETYMOLOGY.  17 

§  12.     OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  POSSESSIVE 

1.  The  apostrophe  and  s  ('s)  is  an  abbreviation  for  is,  the  termina- 
tion of  the  old  English  genitive ;  thus,  "  the  kingh  crown,"  was  an- 
ciently written,  "the  kingis  crown." 

2.  When  the  nominative  singular  ends  in  ss,  or  in  letters  of  similar 
sound,  the  s  after  the  apostrophe  is  sometimes  omitted,  in  order  to 
avoid  too  close  a  succession  of  hissing  sounds;  as,  "for  goodness' 
sake ;"  "  for  conscience'  sake."  This,  however,  is  seldom  if  ever  done 
unless  the  word  following  the  possessive  begins  with  s  ;  thus  we  do 
not  say,  "  the  prince'  feather,"  but,  "  the  prince's  feather." 

3.  The  relation  expressed  by  the  possessive  case,  is  in  general  the 
same  with  that  expressed  by  the  word  of;  thus,  "  the  rage  of  the  ty- 
rant," "  the  death  of  the  prince,"  are  equivalent  to  "  the  tyrant's  rage," 
"the  prince's  death."  Hence  when  the  use  of  the  possessive  would 
appear  stiff,  it  is  better  to  use  the  preposition  of,  or  some  equivalent 
expression  instead  of  it ;  as,  "  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,"  "  the  length  of 
the  day,"  "the  garden  wall,"  for  "Jupiter's  satellites,"  "the  day's 
length,"  "the  garden's  wall."  Sometimes,  however,  the  idea  ex- 
pressed by  the  preposition  of,  with  the  objective,  is  different  from  that 
expressed  by  the  possessive  ;  thus,  "  a  picture  of  the  king,"  and  "the 
king's  picture,"  express  different  ideas:  the  first  means  "a /)or<rai<  of 
the  king;"  the  last,  "  a  picture  belonging  to  the  king." 

QUESTIOJ^S. 

What  is  a  noun  or  substantive  1  Horn  many  kinds  of  nouns  are  there  ? 
What  is  a  proper  noun  ? — a  comino7i  noun  ?  How  do  proper  nouns  be- 
come couviion  ?  What  are  collective  nouns? — abstract  nouns? — di- 
minutive 1.1V.1S  ?     How  are  nouns  varied  ? 

(§6.)  Whi^'  '•<!  gender?  How  many  genders  are  there?  What  does 
the  masctdine  gen^\"denote  '  --the  feminine  ? — the  7ietiter  ?  Mention  the 
different  ways  ofdis^,.   <!:uishing  the  sex: 

(§  7.)  What  is  the  cb.  imon  gender?  How  doneuter  nouns  become 
masculine  or  feminine?  Give  an  instance.  When  the  sex  of  animaU 
is  not  known,  what  gender  do  we  assign  to  those  distinguished  for 
boldness,  fidelity,  strength,  &c.  ? — to  those  characterized  by  weaknpss, 
timidity,  and  the  like? — to  animals  of  inferior  size? 

(§  8.)  What  is  meant  by  number  ?  How  many  numbers  are  there  ? 
What  does  the  singular  denote  ? — the  plural  ?  Hoio  is  the  plural  conv- 
monly  formed  ?  When  is  the  plural  formed  by  adding  es  ?  How  do  nouns 
in  y  after  a  consonant,  form  the  plural  ? — after  a  voioel  ? — nouns  in  (or 
fe7 

3* 


18  EXGLISH    GRAMMAK.  ^13. 

(§9.)  Mention  some  nouns  that  are  irregular  in  the  formation  of  the 
plural.  How  do  words  from  foreign  languages,  in  M»»i,  commonly  form 
the  plural  ? — in  on  7 — in  is  ? 

(§  10.)  When  have  proper  names  the  plural?  What  cort  of  nouns 
are  for  the  most  part  used  in  the  singular?  Mention  some  nouns  used 
in  the  plural  only  ; — some  alike  in  hoth  numhers.  Mention  some  nouns 
plural  in  form,  but  singular  or  plural  in  construction.  When  is  vxe.aiix 
construed  with  a  singular  verb  ? — when  with  a  plural  verb  ? 

(§11.)  What  is  case?  How  many  cases  have  nouns?  name  them. 
What  does  the  nominative  denote  ? — the  possessive  ? — the  objective  7 
Which  two  cases  are  alike  ?  How  is  the  possessive  sing-tdar  usually 
formed  ? — the  possessive  plural  ?     Decline  lady,  John,  &.c. 

(§  12.)  For  what  is  's  an  abbreviation?  When  does  the  possessive 
singular  omit  the  s  after  the  apostrophe  ?  What  form  of  expression  is 
equivalent  to  the  possessive  ? 

EXERCISES  OS  GENDER,  NUMBER  AND  CASE.* 

Father,  brothers,  mother's,  boys,  book,  loaf,  arms,  wife, 
hats,  sisters',  bride's,  bottles,  brush,  goose,  eagles'  wings, 
echo,  ox's  horn,  mouse,  kings,  queens,  bread,  child's  toy, 
grass,  tooth,  tongs,  candle,  chair,  Jane's  boots,  Robert's 
shoe,  horse,  bridle. 

§  13.    III.  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

1.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  to  ex 
press  its  quality,  or  to  limit  its  signification  ;  as,  a 
good  boy  ;  a  square  box  ;  ten  dollars. 

2.  Adjectives  have  three  degrees  of  comparison ; 
namely,  the  Positive^  Comparative^  and  Superrative 

The  Positive  expresses  a  quality  simply:  the  Comparative  asserts 

*  Note.  In  using  the  above  exercises,  it  will  save  much  time,  which  is  very  im- 
portant in  a  large  school,  if  the  pupil  be  taught  to  express  all  tliat  is  necessary  in 
parsing  these  or  other  words,  thus:  Palher,  a  noun,  masculitie,  singular,  Ihe 
nominative ;  Mother's,  a  noun,  femin>ne,  singular,  the  possessive.  It  will  also  be 
a  profitable  exercise  for  him  to  assi^ii  a  reason  for  every  part  of  his  description, 
thus :  Father,  a  noun,  because  the  name  of  an  object ;  masculine,  because  it  de- 
notes the  nude  sex ;  singular,  because  it  denotes  but  one ;  plural,  fathers— Rule, 
I  The  plural  is  commonly  formed  by  adding  s  to  the  singular." 


§  13.  ETYMOLOGY.  19 

it  in  a  higher  or  Imoer  degree  in  one  object  than  in  another :  And  the 
Superlative,  in  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  compared  with  several ; 
thus.  Gold  is  heavier  than  silver;   It  is  the  most  precious  of  the  metals, 

3.  In  adjectives  of  one  syllable,  the  Comparative 
is  formed  by  adding  -er  to  the  positive :  and  the  Su- 
perlative by  addint(  -est  ;  as,  sweet,  sweeter,  siceetest. 
Adjectives  of  7nore  than  one  syllable  are  compared 
by  prefixing  more  and  most  to  the  positive  ;  as,  nu- 
merous, tnore  numerous,  m,ost  numerous. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Di«*ylUiI>U's  in  le  after  a  mute,  are  genenil^y  compared  by  er 
anl  cs^l:  ■askable, abler, ablest.  Dissyllables  in  xj  change  y  into  t,  be- 
Jinscari'l  t>L  at',  happy,  happier,  happiest.  But  i/ with  a  vowel  be- 
fore it,  i-!  not  cliangod  ;  as,  gay,  gayer,  gayest.   §  2,  Rule  in. 

2.  SoT-,»''  a^lji'ctives  form  the  superlative  by  adding  most  to  the  end 
of  the  word;  as,  upper,  uppermost.  So,  undermost,  foi-emost,  hind- 
most, utmost. 

3.  When  tlic  positive  ends  in  a  simple  consonant,  preceded  by  a 
pjiigle  vowul,  the  consonant  is  doubled  before  er  and  est ;  as  hot,  hotter, 
hottest.  §  2,  Rule  iv. 

4.  Som;  adjectives  do  not  admit  of  comparison,  viz; 

1.  Such  as  denote  Jiumfter ;  as,  one,  two ; — third,  fourth. 

2. figure  or  shape  ;  as,  circular,  square. 

3. posture  or  position;  as,  perpendicular,  horizontal, 

4.  Those ofan  ahsohiteorsuprrlativc  signification  ;  as,  true, perfect, 

xmiversal,  chief,  extreme,  &e. 

5.  Such  adjectives  as  superior,  inferior,  exterior,  interior,  &c.  though 
they  involve  the  idea  of  comparison,  are  not  to  be  considered  as  in  the 
c«n»parative  degree,  any  more  than  such  adjectives  as  preferable, 
previous,  Slc.  They  neither  have  the  form  of  the  comparative,  nor 
rre  they  construed  with  than  after  them,  as  comparatives  in  English 
jniformly  are.     See  Syntax,  §  71,  Rule  xxii. 

6.  The  s\iperlative  degree  implying  comparison,  is  usually  preceded 
by  the  definite  article.  AVhen  preceded  by  the  indefinite  article,  it  does 
not  imply  comparison,  but  emiiience;  as,  "he  is  a  most  distinguished 
man."  The  same  thing  is  expressed  by  prefixing  the  adverb  very,  ex- 
ceedingly, and  the  like;  which  is  called  the  superlative  of  eminence. 

7.  Without  implying  comparison,  the  signification  of  the  positisr-  ia 


20 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


^  14. 


sometimes  lessened  by  the  termination  ish  ;  as,  vBhite,  whitish :  black, 
olackiah.  These  may  properly  be  called  diminutive  adjectives.  The 
adverb  rather,  expresses  a  small  degree  of  the  quality ;  as,  rather 
little. 

8.  Nouns  become  adjectives  when  they  arc  used  to  cxprese  tho 
quality  of  other  nouns  ;  as,  gold  ring,  silver  cup,  sea  water. 

9.  On  the  contrary,  adjectives  are  often  used  as  nouns  ;  as,  "God 
rewards  the  goorf,  and  punishes  the  bad."  *^^he  virtuous  are  the 
most  happy."  Adjectives  thus  used  are  usually  preceded  by  the  de- 
finite article  ;  and  when  applied  to  persons,  are  considered  plural. 
§  40,  Rule  VII. 

10.  Adjectives  which  express  number,  are  called  J^umeral  adjec- 
tives. They  are  of  two  kinds.  Cardinal  and  Ordinal.  The  cardinal 
answer  the  question,  "Aow  niany  ?"  and  are  one,  two,  three,  four,  five, 
iix,  &c.  The  ordinal  answer  the  question,  "which  of  the  number  i" 
They  Sire  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  &c. 


§  14.     Adjectives  Compared  Irregularly. 

Positive. 

Co7nparative. 

Superlative* 

Good 

better 

best 

Bad,  evil  or  ill 

worse 

worst 

Little 

less 

least 

Much  or  many 

more 

most 

Late 

later 

latest  or  last 

Near 

nearer 

nearest  or  next 

Far 

farther 

farthest 

Fore 

former 

foremost  or  first 

Old 

older  or 

elder 

oldest  or  eldest 

Obs>.  Much  is  appUed  to  things  tceighed  or  measured;  many,  to 
those  that  are  numbered.  Elder  and  eldest,  to  persons  only ;  older  anc 
oldest,  either  to  persons  or  thiiigs. 

Q.UESTIOJ^S. 

(§  13  &  14.)  What  is  an  adjective  ?  How  many  degrees  of  compari- 
son are  there  ? — name  them.  What  does  the  positive  express  ? — the 
comparative? — the  superlative?  How  are  adjectives  of  one  syllable 
compared  ? — of  more  than  one  ? 

(0»8.)  How  arc  dissyllables  in  /e,  after  a  mute,  compared  ? — dis 


§  15  ETYMOLOGY.  3} 

syllables  in  j/  ?  What  superlatives  are  formed  by  adding  most  to  the 
end  of  the  word  ?  What  words  double  the  final  consonant  before  er 
and  est  ?  What  adjectives  do  not  admit  of  comparison  ?  Of  what 
degree  are  superior,  inferior,  interior,  &c.  ?  What  does  the  superla* 
live  imply  when  preceded  by  the  tZe/inite  article? — by  the  indefinite? 
What  is  the  force  of  the  termination  ish  ?  What  are  adjectives  in  ish 
called  ?  When  are  nouns  used  as  adjectives  ?  Are  adjectives  ever 
used  as  nouns? — give  an  example.  Of  what  number  are  they 
when  applied  to  persons?  What  are  numeral  adjectives?  Name 
the  cardinal  ; — the  ordinal.  What  do  the  cardinal  express? — the  or- 
dinal? What  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly  ?  What  is  mwcft 
applied  to?  many  ? — elder  and  eldest  ? — older  and  oldest  ? 

EXERCISES. 

Of  what  degree  of  comparison  is — Sweet,  kinder,  warm- 
est, prompt,  firmest,  bright,  high,  cold,  nobler,  broader, 
bravest,  more  pleasant,  most  desirable,  softer. 

Compare — Great,  small,  rough,  smooth,  happy,  noble, 
gay,  good,  little,  much,  worthless,  ambitious,  old,  young. 

EXERCISES    ON    THE    ARTICLE,    NOUN    AND    ADJECTIVE. 

A  good  man  ;  a  kind  heart ;  a  clear  sky  ;  the  benevo- 
lent  lady  ;  the  highest  hill ;  a  skilful  artist ;  an  older  com- 
panion ;  man's  chief  concern ;  a  lady's  lapdog ;  most 
splendid  talents  ;  the  liveliest  disposition  ;  a  pleasant  tem- 
per ;  the  raging  billows ;  temples  magnificent ;  silent 
shades  ;  excellent  weather ;  a  loftier  tower ;  a  happier  dis- 
position. 

§  15.     IV.  OF  THE  PRONOUN. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun ;  as 
John  is  a  good  boy  *,  he  is  diligent  in  his  studies. 

Pronouns  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  ;  Per 
so7ial,  Relative,  and  Adjective.     The  personal  pro- 
nouns are,  /,  thoi/j  he,  she,  it.     They  are  thus  de- 
chned : 


33  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  15 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL 

J^om.      Pass.* 

Obj. 

JVbm. 

Pass* 

Obj. 

1. 

m.  or/. 

I           mine 

me 

We 

ours 

us 

2. 

m.  or/. 

Thou  thine 

thee 

You 

yours 

you 

3. 

masc. 

He       his 

him 

They 

theirs 

them 

3. 

fern. 

She      hers 

her 

They 

theirs 

them 

3. 

neut. 

It         its 

it 

They 

theirs 

them 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

1.  lis  the  Jirst  person,  and  denotes  the  speaker 
Thou  is  the  second,  and  denotes  the  person  spoken 
to.  He,  she,  and  it,  are  of  the  third  person,  and 
denote  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of.  So  also  of 
their  phirals,  we,  you,  (ye),  they. 

2.  Myself,  thyself,  himself,  herself,  itself,  witli 
their  plurals  ourselves,  yourselves,  themselves,  may 
be  called  Compound  personal  pronouns  :  They  are 
used  in  the  nominative  and  objective  cases.  In  the 
nominative  they  are  emphatic,  and  are  added  to 
their  respective  personal  pronouns,  or  are  used  in- 
stead of  them  ;  as,  "  I  myself  Aid  it ;"  "  himself  shall 
come."  In  the  objective  they  are  refiexive,  showing 
that  the  agent  is  also  the  object  of  his  own  act ;  a>, 
"  Judas  went  and  hanged  himself" 

3.  In  proclamations,  charters,  editorial  articles,  and  the  like,  toe  ia 
frequently  applied  to  one  person. 

4.  In  addressing  persons,  you  is  commonly  put  both  for  the  singulai 
and  the  plural,  and  hao  always  a  plural  verb.  Thou  is  used  only  in  ad- 
dresses to  the  Deity,  or  any  important  object  in  nature ;  or  to  mark 
special  emphasis,  or,  in  the  language  of  contempt.  The  plural  form 
ye  is  now  but  seldom  used. 

5;  The  pronoun  t(,  besides  its  use  as  the  neuter  pronoun  of  the  third 
person,  is  also  used  indefinitely  with  the  verb  to  be  in  the  third  person 

•  See  $  18,  L  Olw.  1. 


§  16.  ETYHOLOOT.  tt 

singular,  for  all  genders,  numbers,  and  persons;  as,  A  ts /,  it  m  we, 
it  is  you,  it  is  they ; — It  xcas  she,  &c. 

6.  Hers,  its,  ours,  yours,  theirs,  should  never  be  written  her^s,  iPs, 
aula's,  your's,  their^s ;  for  the  final  s  is  not  used  on  account  of  the  go- 
vernment of  the  noun  understood,  but  because  the  noun  is  omitted. 
We  cannot  say  Aer's  book,  but  her  book,  or,  that  book  is  hers, 

7.  The  personal  pronouns  may  be  parsed  briefly  thus ;  /,  the  first 
personal  pronoun,  masculine  (or  feminine),  singular,  the  nomina- 
tive. His,  the  third  personal  pronoun,  masculine,  singular,  the  pos- 
sessive, &c 

QJJEST/OJVS. 

§  1 5,  What  is  a  pronoim  ?  ^ame  the  classes  into  which  they  are  di- 
vided. Jfamie  the  personal  pronouns.  Decline  them.  Of  what  person 
is  I? — thou  1 — he,  she,  it  ?  What  does  the  first  person  denote  ? — the  se- 
cond? — the  third?  To  rchal  class  do  myself,  thyself,  <^c.  belong?  In 
what  cases  are  they  used?  Hoxc  are  they  applied  in  the  nominative 7~ 
in  the  objective  ?  How  is  you  applied? — thoii  ? — it  ? 

EXERCISES  ON  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 
I,  thou,  we,  me,  us,  thine,  he,  him,  she,  hers,  they,  thee, 
them,  its,  theirs,  you,  her,  ours,  yours,  mine,  his,  I,  me, 
them,  us,  wo. 

§  16.  OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1.  A  Relative  Pronoun  is  a  word  that  relates  to 
a  noun  or  pronoun  before  it,  called  the  antecedent ; 
tis,  the  master  who  taught  us. 

2.  The  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and  that. 
They  are  alike  in  both  numbers  ;  and  that  is  alike 
in  all  cases.     They  are  thus  declined. 

Siller,  and  Plur.         Sing,  and  Plur. 
Norn.  Who,         *  *       4Vhich. 

Poss.  Whose,  Whose. 

Obj.  Whom,  Which. 

3.  Who  is  applied  to  persons;  as,  the  boy  who 
reads. 


24  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR.  ^  10 

Obs.  Also  to  inferior  animals,  and  tilings  without  life,  when  they  aii 
represented  as  speaitin;^  and  acting  like  rational  beings. 

4.  Which  is  applied  to  inferior  animals  and  things 
without  life ;  as,  the  dog  which  barks ;  the  book 
which  was  lost. 

Note.  Also  to  collective  nouns  composed  of  persons;  as,  "the  court 
of  Spain  which;"  "the  company  which:"  And  likewise  after  the 
name  of  a  person  used  merely  aCa  word  ;  as,  "  The  court  of  Cluecn 
Elizabeth,  which  was  but  another  name  for  prudence  and  economy." 

Which  was  formerly  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  things,  and  is  so 
used  in  the  common  version  of  the  Scriptures, 

5.  That  is  often  used  as  a  relative,  to  prevent  the 
too  frequent  repetition  of  who  or  which.  It  is  applied 
both  to  persons  and  things.     §  58,  Rem.  3. 

6.  What  is  a  compound  relative,  including  both 
the  relative  and  the  antecedent ;  as,  this  is  what  1 
wanted,  that  is,  the  thing  which  I  wanted. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  RELATIVE. 

1.  Which  has  for  its  possessive  whose  ;  as,  A  religion  whose  origin 
IS  divine.  Instead  of  lohose,  however,  the  objective  with  of  before  it, 
is  more  commonly  used;  as,  A  religion,  the  origin  ofiohich  is  divine. 

2.  What  and  lohich  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives  ;  that  is,  they 
agree  with  a  substantive  followmg  them  ;  as,  "  I  know  not  by  what 
fatality  the  adversaries  of  the  measure  are  impelled  ;" — "  Which  things 
are  an  allegory."  In  this  sense,  which  applies  either  to  persons  or 
things,  and  in  meaning  is  equivalent  to  this  or  these. 

3.  Whoever,  whosoever,  whatever,  and  whatsoever  are  also  used  as 
compound  relatives,  and  are  equivalent  to  the  relative  and  a  general  or 
indefinite  antecedent  ;  as,  "  Whosoever  committeth  sin  is  the  servant 
of  sin  ;"  that  is,  "  any  one,"  or  "  every  one  toko  committeth  sin,  &c" 
"  Whatsoever  things  are  of  good  report;"  i.  e.  "Ml  things  (without 
exception)  which  are  of  good  report."  §  59.  Rule  iii.   §  63,  8. 

4.  Who,  and  also  which,  and  ichat  without  a  substantive  following 
them,  in  responsive  sentences,  or  in  sentences  similarly  constructed, 
are  properly  neither  relatives  nor  adjectives,  but  a  kind  of  indefinite 
pronouns.  Thus,  when  to  the  question  "  Who  is  the  author  of  that 
x>oem?"  it  is  replied,  "I  do  not  know  irAo  is  its  anther,"  the  word 


§  17,  18.  ETTHOIOOT.  2b 

"wko  "  is  evidently  not  a  relative ;  for  if  it  were,  then,  with  the  antecedent 
supplied,  the  sentence  would  be  "I  do  not  know  tlie  person  who  ia 
its  author."  These  two  sentences,  however,  are  clearly  not  equiva- 
lent ;  the  former  means  "  I  do  not  know  by  what  person  it  was  writ- 
ten ; "  the  latter,  "  I  have  no  knowledge  of  him,  I  am  not  acquainted 
with  him."  The  first  is  a  direct  answer  to  the  question,  the  last  is  no 
answer  at  all,  but  would  be  considered  as  an  evasion, 

§  17.  OF  THE  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

In  asking  questions,  icho,  tvhich,  and  what  are 
called  Interrogative  pronouns. 

As  interrogatives,  who  is  applied  to  persons  only  ; 
which  and  what,  either  to  persons  or  things.  What 
admits  of  no  variation. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  In  the  use  of  the  interrogatives  as  applied  to  persons,  the  foUow- 
lowing  distinction  is  to  be  observed  ;  namely.  Who  is  used  when  we 
inquire  after  a  person  or  persons  wholly  unknown  ;  as,  W.ho  did  it  ? — 
Whick  is  used  when  we  inquire  after  one  or  more  of  a  number  present, 
or  already  spoken  of ;  as,  I'F/ticA  of  them  did  it  ?  Doyou  know  w>Atc/i 
of  these  men  is  the  president? — IVkat  is  used  when  the  character,  or 
a  description  of  a  person  is  inquired  after,  and  not  the  nan>e,  or  the 
individual  merely  ;  as,  What  man  is  that  ? 

2.  When  a  defining  clause  is  added,  either  what  or  which  may  be 
used  ;  as,  What,  or  which  man  among  you  ? 

3.  Whether  (now  used  as  a  conjunction  only)  was  formerly  used  as 
an  interrogative  pronoun,  equivalent  to,  which  of  the  ttoo  ?  Its  place 
is  now  supplied  by  which. 

4.  In  answers  to  questions  made  by  these  interrogatives,  the  same 
words  are  used  as  responsives ;  as.  Who  did  it  ?  I  know  not  who  did 
it.  Which  of  them  did  it  ?  I  know  not  which  of  them  did  it  See  §  16, 
Obs.  4. 

§  18.     OF  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

There  are  four  sorts  of  Adjective  pronouns,  viz. 
the  Possessive,  Distributive,  Demonstrative,  £ind 
Indefinite. 


20  KNCLlsn  GRAMMAR.  ^   18. 

J .  The  Possessive  pronouns  are  such  as  relate  to 
possession  or  properti/.  They  are,  My,  thy,  his, 
her,  our,  your,  their,  its,  own. 

Obs.  ].  The  jK)9scssive  pronoun  is  in  fact  only  another  form  of  tlio 
possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun,  having  the  same  meaning  but 
a  different  construclion.  The  possessive  pronoun,  like  the  adjective, 
is  always  followed  by  a  substantive;  as,  this  is  ?ny  hook.  Tlie  pos- 
sessive case  of  the  personal  pronoun  is  never  followed  by  a  substan- 
tive, but  refers  to  one  previously  expressed ;  as,  this  book  is  mine. 
The  possessive  case  of  the  substantive  is  used  both  ways  ^  as,  this 
book  is  /o/»i's;  or,  this  is  Joliii's  book. 

Obs.  2.  His  and  her,  when  followed  by  a  substantive,  are  possessive 
pronouns  :  Not  followed  by  a  substantive,  his  is  the  possessivecase  of 
he;  and  her  is  the  objective  case  of  she. 

Obs.  3.  J\{ine  and  thine  were  formerly  used,  before  a  vowel  or  the 
letter  h,  as  possessives  for  my  and  thy  ;  as,  "Blot  out  all  mine  iniqui- 
ties;" "Commune  with  thine  heart." 

Obs.  4.  Oto/i  is  not  used  as  a  possessive  pronoun  by  itself,  but  is 
added  to  the  other  possessive  pronouns,  and  to  the  possessive  case  of 
nouns,  to  render  them  emphatic;  as,  My  oion  book  ;  The  boy's  man 
book.  The  possessive  pronoun  with  oicn  following  it,  may  stand  alone, 
having  its  substantive  understood  ;  as,  It  is  my  own. 

2.  The  distributive  pronouns  represent  the  per- 
sons or  things  that  make  up  a  number  as  taken  se- 
parately.    They  are,  Each,  every,  either,  neither. 

Obs.  I.  Each  denotes  two  things  taken  separately ;  or,  every  one 
o*^  any  number  taken  singly.  Every  denotes  more  than  two  things 
taken  individually,  and  comprehends  them  all.  Either,  means  one  ot 
two,  but  not  both.     J^either  means  not  either. 

3.  The  defnonstrative  pronouns  point  out  with 
precision  the  object  to  which  they  relate.  They 
are,  This  and  that,  with  their  plurals  these  and 
those. 

Obs.  1.  Yon,  s.nd  former  and  latter,  maybe  called  demonstrative 
pronouns,  as  well  as  this  and  that. 

Obs.  2.  That  is  sometimes  a  relcUive,  sometimes  a  demonstrative,  and 
sometimes  a  conjunction. 


§  18.  ETTMOLOGT.  27 

1.  It  is  a  relative,  when  it  can  be  turned  into  who  or  which ;  as,  The 
days  that  (or  which)  are  past,  are  gone  forever. 

2.  It  is  a  demonstrative,  when  it  is  placed  before  a  noun,  or  refers  to 
one  at  some  distance  from  it ;  as,  That  book  is  new ;  thai  is  what  1 
want. 

3.  It  is  a  conjunction  when  it  cannot  be  changed  into  who  or  which, 
but  marks  a  consequence,  an  indication,  or  final  end ;  as.  He  was  so 
proud,  that  he  was  universally  despised  :  He  answered,  that  he  never 
was  so  happy  as  now  ;  Live  well,  that  you  may  be  happy. 

4.  The  indefinite  pronouns  denote  persons  or 
things  indefinitely.  They  are,  None,  any,  all,  such, 
whole,  some,  both,  one,  other.  The  two  last  are  de- 
clined like  nouns. 

Among  the  indefinites  may  also  be  reckoned  such 
words  as  no,  few,  many,  several,  and  the  like ;  as 
well  as  the  compounds,  whoever,  whatever,  ichich- 
soever,  &.C.,  and  who,  which,  and  what,  in  responsive 
sentences.  §  16.  Obs.  4. 

None  is  used  in  both  numbers,  but  it  cannot  be 
joined  to  a  noun. 

Note.  The  distributives,  demonstratives,  and  indefinites,  cannot 
strictly  be  called  pronouns ;  since  they  never  stand  instead  of  nouns, 
but  always  agree  with  a  noun  expressed  or  understood  :  Neither  can 
they  be  properly  called  adjectives,  since  they  never  express  the  quality 
of  a  noun.  They  are  here  classed  with  pronouns,  in  accordance  with 
the  usages  of  other  languages,  which  generally  assign  them  this  place. 
All  these,  together  with  the  possessives,  in  parsing,  may  with  suflicicnt 
propriety  be  termed  adjectives,  being  uniformly  regarded  as  such  in 
syntax. 

Q,UESTIONS. 

(§  16  &  17.)  What  is  a  relative  proiioun  ?  ^ame  them.  Decline 
^ho — which.  How  is  who  applied  ? — which  ? — that  ? — What  does 
what,  used  as  a  » dative,  imply  ? 

(Obs.)  When  are  what  and  which  used  as  adjectives  ?  How  are 
whoever  and  whosoever  applied?  How  is  who  applied  in  asking  ques- 
tions?    How  IS  which  applied?    How  was  whether  formerly  used? 


28  BIfGLISH    GRAMMAR.  ^  18. 

How  is  it  now  used  ?     When  are  who,  which,  and  xchal  used  as  re 
sponsivcs? 

(§  18.)  How  many  sorts  of  adjective  pronouns  are  there  ?  J^umt 
them.  Mention  the  possessive  pronouns.  How  is  the  possessive  pro- 
noun distinguished  from  the  possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun  1 
When  are  Aii  and  her  possessive  pronouns? — when  substantive  m- 
personal  ?  How  are  mine  and  thine  used  ? — oxen  ?  Mention  the  dis' 
tribulive  pronouns.  How  is  each  applied  ? — every  ? — either  ? — neither  ? 
Mention  the  demonstrative  pronouns.  What  other  words  may  be  eon- 
aidered  as  demonstratives?  When  is  that  a  relative  ? — a  demonstra- 
tive?— a  conjunction  ?  Mention  the  indefinite  pronouns.  Which  of 
them  are  declined  like  nouns  ?  What  other  words  may  be  considci 
ed  as  indefinites  ?     How  is  none  used  ? 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  ON  NOUNS,  &c 

A  man,  he,  who,  which,  that,  his,  me,  mine,  thine,  whose, 
they,  hers,  it,  we,  us,  I,  him,  its,  horse,  mare,  master,  thou, 
theirs,  thee,  you,  my,  thy,  our,  your,  their,  his,  her, — this, 
these  ;  that,  those, — each,  every,  other,  any,  none,  bride, 
daughter,  uncle,  wife's,  sir,  girl,  madam,  box,  dog,  lad ;  a 
gay  lady  ;  sweet  apples  ;  strong  bulls  ;  fat  oxen  ;  a  moun- 
tainous coimtry. 

Compare — Rich,  merry,  furious,  covetous,  large,  little, 
good,  bad,  near,  wretched,  rigorous,  delightful,  sprightly, 
spacious,  splendid,  gay,  imprudent,  pretty. 

The  human  mind  ;  cold  water  ;  he,  thou,  she,  it ;  woody 
mountains  ;  the  naked  rock ;  youthful  jollity ;  goodness 
divine  ;  justice  severe  ;  this,  thy,  others,  one  ;  a  peevish 
boy  ;  hers,  their  strokes ;  pretty  girls  ;  his  droning  flight ; 
her  delicate  cheeks ;  a  man  who ;  the  sun  that ;  a  bird  which ; 
himself,  themselves,  itself;    that  house  ;   these  books. 

Correct — The  person  which  waited  on  us  yesterday. 
The  horse  who  rode  down  the  man.  The  dog  who  was 
chained  at  the  door.  Those  sort  of  trees.  These  kind 
of  persons.  The  angel  which  appeared  to  Moses.  The 
boys  which  learned  their  lessons  so  well.     The  sun  who 


^   19 


ETYMOLOUV.  29 


shines  so  bright.  Those  kind  of  amusements.  The 
woman  which  told  me  the  story.  The  niessenger  which 
carried  the  letter.  The  court  who  sat  last  week.  The 
member  which  spoke  last.  There  were  twenty  men, 
each  with  a  spear ;   but  neither  of  them  was  fully  armed. 

§  19.  OF  VERBS. 

1.  A  Verb  is  a  word  that  expresses  an  action  or 
state ;  as,  I  write,  you  sit,  he  sleeps,  they  are. 

Obs.  1.  The  use  of  the  verb  in  simple  propositions  is  to  affirm  or  de- 
clare.    That  of  which  it  aflirms  is  called  its  subject  or  nominative. 

2.  Verbs  are  of  two  kinds,  Transitive  and  /n- 
transitive.* 

3.  A  Transitive  Verb  expresses  an  act  done  by 
one  person  or  thing  to  another ;  as,  James  strikes 
the  table.  It  has  two  forms  called  the  Active  and 
the  Passive  voice,  §  21. 

*  The  terms  Transitive  and  Inlransilire  are  here  preferred  to  the 
terms  Active  and  Neuter,  formerly  used,  as  being  a  more  accurate  desig- 
nation of  these  two  ela.sses  of  verbs,  and  removing  etlectually  the  con- 
fusion and  ambiguity  arising  from  the  double  use  of  the  term  active,  to 
denote  a  class  of  verbs,  and  also  a  particular  form  of  the  verb  ;  as  well 
as  its  being  used  by  some  to  denote  transitive  verbs  only,  and  by  others 
to  denote  all  verbs  which  express  action,  whether  transitive  or  intran- 
sitive. The  term  active  is  nosv  used  in  this  grammar,  not  to  denote  a 
class  of  verbs,  but  only  that  Ibrm  of  all  verbs  usually  called  the  active 
voice.  §  29.  Still,  however,  should  any  teacher  prefer  to  use  the 
terms  active  and  neuter,  it  can  easily  be  done. 

The  following  are  the  most  common  divisions  of  the  verb  that  have 
been  used  by  grammarians. 

1.  Murray  divides  verbs  into  Artire,  Passive,  and  Neuter.  By  active 
he  means  transitive  verbs  only,  and  by  neuter,  all  verbs  not  transitive. 

2.  Mr.  Kirkham,  and  Mr.  Smith,  divide  verbs  also  into  Active,  Pas- 
sive, and  Neuter.  Under  the  term  active,  they  mclude  all  verbs  which 
denote  action  of  any  kind,  whether  transitive  or  intransitive;  and  under 
the  term  neuter,  those  only  which  denote  being  simply,  or  an  inactive 
state  of  being. 

3.  Mr.  Brown  divides  verbs  into  four  classes,  called  Active-transt- 
live.  Active-intransitive,  Passive,  and  Neuter.  It'  we  unite  the  second 
and  fourth  of  these,  which  oucht  never  to  be  divided,  we  have  the  divi- 
sion of  Murray.  tJnite  the  lirst  and  second,  and  we  have  the  division 
of  Kirkham.  For  further  remarks  on  these  classifications,  see  Appen- 
dix, m.  5. 


30  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §     19 

4.  An  Intransitive  Verb  expresses  being,  or  a 
state  of  being,  or  action  confined  to  the  actor ;  as,  I 
am,  he  sleeps,  you  run. 

Ob3.  2.  In  this  division.  Transitive  verbs  include  all  those  which  ex- 
press an  act  that  passes  over  t'rom  the  actor,  to  an  object  acted  upon  ; 
£LS,  J£e   loves  tw.     Intransitive   verba   include  all    verba  not  transitive, 
whether  they  express  an  action  or  not ;  eis,  I  am,  you  waUc,  they  rur 
See  §21,  Obs.2,3. 

5.  Intransitive  Verbs,  from  their  nature,  can  huve 
no  distinction  of  voice.  Their  form  is  generally  ac- 
tive ;  as,  I  stand,  I  lun,  A  few  admit  also  the  pas- 
sive form ;  as,  "  He  is  come ;"  "  they  are  gone ;"" — 
equivalent  to  "  He  has  come ;"  "  they  have  gone." 

6.  Transitive  Verbs  in  the  active  voice,  and  in- 
transitive verbs,  being  of  the  same  form,  can  be  dis 
tinguished  only  by  their  signification  and  construc- 
tion. The  following  marks  will  enable  the  student 
to  make  this  necessary  distinction  with  ease  and 
certainty, 

1st.  A  transitive  active  verb  requires  an  object  after  it  to  complete 
the  sense  ;  as,  The  boy  studies  grammar.  §  48.  Rem.  3.  An  intransi- 
tive verb  requires  no  object  after  it,  but  the  sense  is  complete  without 
it;  as.  He  sits,  you  Hde. 

2d.  Every  transitive  active  verb  can  be  changed  into  the  passive 
form  ;  thus,  "  James  strikes  the  table,"  can  be  changed  into  "  The  table 
is  struck  by  James."  But  the  intransitive  verb  cannot  be  so  changed  ; 
thus,  I  smile,  cannot  be  changed  into  I  am  smiled. 

3d.  In  the  use  of  the  transitive  verb  there  are  always  three  things 
implied, — the  actor,  the  act,  and  the  object  acted  upon.  In  the  use  of 
the  intransitive  there  are  only  iico — the  subject  or  thing  spoken  of,  and 
the  state,  or  action  attributed  to  it. 

7.  In  respect  of  form,  verbs  are  divided  into 
Regular,  Irregular,  and  Defective. 

8.  A  Regular  verb  is  one  that  forms  its  Imperfect 


^    ~0-  ETYjMOLOGV, 


31 


Indicative,  and  its  Perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or 
ed  to  the  Present;  as,  Present,  love;  Imperfect, 
loved ;  Perfect  participle,  loved. 

9.  An  Irregular  verb  is  one  that  does  not  form 
its  Imperfect  Indicative,  and  Perfect  participle,  by 
adding  d  or  ed  to  -the  Present ;  thus,  Present,  write  • 
Imperfect,  wrote;  Perfect  participle,  written. 

10.  A  Defective  verb  is  one  that  wants  some  of 
its  parts.  To  this  class  belong  chiefly  Auxiliary 
and  Impersonal  verbs. 

§  20.  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 
The  Auxiliary,  or  helping  verbs,  by  the  help  of 
which  verbs  are  principally  inflected,  are  the  follow- 
ing, which,  as  auxiliaries,  are  used  only  in  the  pre- 
sent and  past  tenses;  viz. 

jPre,«.     Do,        have,      shall,        will,        may,        can,        am,      must 
Past.    Did,       had,       shotdd,     would,    might,      could,     was,      

And  the  participles  (of  be,)  being,  been. 
Am;  do,  and  have,  are  also  principal  verbs. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Let  (used  by  some  Grammarians  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  impera- 
tive mood,)  is  properly  an  flcfa;e  verb,  and  complete.  Ought  is  a  de- 
fective verb,  having,  like  must,  only  the  present  tense. 

2.  ShaU.  implies  duty  or  obliijation  ;  mil,  purpose  or  resohitit-in  ;  may, 
liberty ;  cai\,  ability.  The  past  tense  of  these  verbs,  should,  viould, 
might,  could,  are  very  indefinite  with  respect  to  time;  beiuir  used  to  ex- 
press duty,  purpose,  liberty,  and  ability,  sometimes  witii  regard  to  what 
IS  past,  sometimes  with  regard  to  what  is  present,  and  sometimes  with 
regard  to  what  is  future ;  thus, 

Pusf.  He  could  not  do  it  then,  for  he  was  otherwise  engaged 

Presi'iit.      I  irould  do  it  with  pleasure,  if  I  could. 

Future.       If  he  vould  delay  liis  journey  a  few  days,   I  might,  (could, 

rvould  or  should,)  accompany  him. 
In  tlicse  and  similar  examples,  the  auxiliaries  may  be  considered  simplf 


32  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  ^  20 

as  denoting  Hberly,  ability,  will,  or  duty,  without  any  reference  to  time  in 
themselves',  and  that  the  precise  time  is  indicated  by  the  scope  of  the 
sentence.  The  same  observation  applies  to  must  and  ougfu,  implying 
necessity  and  obligation. 

3.   Would  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  what   was  customary;  as  in 
the  examples,  "He  would  say;"  "lie  would  desire,"  &,c.    Thus, 
Pleased  with  niy  admiration,  and  the  fire 
His  speech  struck  from  me,  the  old  man  would  shake 
His  years  away,  and  act  his  young  encounters; 
Then,  having  shewed  his  wounds,  he'd  sit  (him)  down. 

4.  Of  Will  and  Shall,  Would  and  Should. 

Will,  in  ihefirst  person  singular  and  plural,  intimates  resotution  and 
promising- ;  as,  I  will  not  let  thee  go,  except  thou  bless  me.  We  will 
go.     I  will  make  of  thee  a  great  nation. 

Will,  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  commonly  foretels ;  as,  He  wiR 
reward  the  righ'cous.     You,  or  they,  will  he  very  happy  there. 

Shall,  ill  the  first  person,  only/orp/eis;  as,  I  shall  go  to-morrovr.  We 
shall  not  leiuni. 

In  the  second  and  third  iiersons,  shall,  promises,  commands,  or  threat- 
ens;  as,  they,  or  you,  shall  he  rewarded.  Thou  shall  not  steal.  The 
soul  that  sinneth  shaU  die. 

But  this  must  be  understood  of  affirmative  sentences  only ;  for  when 
the  sentence  is  interrogative,  just  the  reverse  commonly  lakes  place  ; 
as.  Shall  I  send  you  a  little  of  the  pie  ?  i.  e.  will  you  permit  me  to  send 
It?     IV'f'ZZ  .Tames  return  to-morrow?   i.  e.  Do  you  expect  him ? 

When  the  second  and  third  per.?ons  are  represented  as  the  subjects 
of  their  own  expressions,  or  their  own  thoughts,  SHALL  foretels  as 
m  the  Jirst  person  ;  as,  "  He  says  he  shall  be  a  loser  by  this  bargain ;" 
"Do  you  suppose  you  shall  go?"  And  WILL  promises,  as  in  the 
first  person  ;  as,  "  He  says  he  will  bring  Pope's  Homer  trs-morrow  ;*' 
"You  say  you  will  certainly  come." 

Of  Shall  it  may  be  remarked,  that  it  never  expresses  the  wiU  or  re- 
solution o{  \ts  iiominative.  Thus, /sWZ  fall ,  TAok  ."jAo// love  thy  neigh- 
bour; He  shall  be  rewarded,  express  no  resolution  on  the  part  of/, 
thou,  he. 

Did  Will,  on  the  contrary',  always  intimate  the  resolution  of  its  7»o- 
minative,  the  difficulty  of  applying  will  and  shall  would  be  at  an  end  : 
But  this  cannot  be  said  ;  for  though  w'dl  in  the  first  person  always  ex- 
presses the  resolution  of  its  nominative,  yet  in  the  second  and  third  per- 
sons it  dues  not  always  forclcl,  but  often  intimates  the  resolution  of  its 
nominative  as  strongly  as  it  docs  in  x\\c  first  person;  thus,  "Ye  will 
not  come  unto  me,  that  ye  may  have  life."  "He  will  not  perform  the 
duty  of  my  husband's  brother."      Dent.  xxv.  7 ;  see  also  verse  9. 


§  21.  ETv:.tn:.rir;Y.  ;j3 

Accordingly   xmuhl,  the  past  time  of  wv//,  is  used  in  the  same  manner ; 
as  "And  he  was  aiiijry,  and  would  nui  go  in."     Luite  xv.  ts. 

Should  and  t^ouW  are  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  shuU.  and  wdl 
They  are  generally  attended  with  a  supposition  ;  as,  Were  I  to  run,  1 
should  soon  be  fatigued,  &,c. 

Should  is  o/'en  used  instead  of  ought,  to  express  duty  or  obligation, 
as,  "  We  siwuld  remember  the  poor."  "  We  ought  to  obey  God  rather 
than  men." 

Would  is  sometimes  used  as  a  principal  verb  for  /  wuih  ;  as,  "  Wotild 
that  they  were  gone,"  for  "  /  wL^h  that  they  were  gone."  Thus  used 
it  is  in  the  present  tease. 

^  21.  INFLECTION  OF  VERBS. 
To  the  inflection  of  verbs  belong  Voices^  Moodsy 
TenseSy.J\\imberSj  and  Persons. 


OF   VOICE. 

Voice  is  a  particular  form  of  the  verb  which 
shows  the  relation  of  the  subject^  or  thing  spoken  of, 
to  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb. 

In  English  the  transitive  verb  has  always  two 
voices,  the  Active  and  Passive. 

The  Active  Voice  represents  the  subject  of  the 

verb  as  acting  upon  some  object;  as,  James  strikes 

the  table. 

Here  the  verb  "strikes"  in  the  active  voice,  indicates  what  its  Sub- 
ject "James"  does  to  the  object  table. 

The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject  of  the 
verb  as  acted  upon  by  some  person  or  thingj  as,  the 
table  is  struck  by  James, 

Here  the  verb  "is  struck"  in  the  passive  voice  indicates  what  ia 
done  to  the  subject  "  table"  by  James. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
1.  Tlie  transitive  verb  always  expresses  the  soTne  act  whether  it  be 
m  the  active  or  passive  form.    In  both  it  is  equally  transitive,  i.  e.  the 
act  expressed  by  it  in  either  form,  passes  over  from  tlie  person  or  thing 


34  KXfil.lSII    (JKv^.-MMAR.  ^  21 

acting,  to  tlie  person  or  thini;  ucteil  upon.  Hence  tlic  same  idea  may  be 
expressed  with  equal  propriety  in  botli  forms,  simply  byciianging  tlie  ob- 
ject of  the  active  voice  into  tiie  subject  of  the  passive  ;  liius, 

Actively.     Cfesar  conquered  Gaul. 

Passively.  Gaul  was  conquered  by  Caxar. 
Both  these  sentences  express  the  same  act  '''conquering."  In  hot)), 
" Cicsar'"  is  represented  as  the  conqueror,  and  "Gaul"  the  conquered. 
The  meaning,'  then  being  tlie  pan'ie,  the  difference  lies  only  in  their  fjrani- 
matical  structure.  The  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  first  sentence  is  Casar, 
— in  the  second,  Gaul; — in  ihe  first  the  subject  is  spoken  of  as  acting, — 
m  the  second,  us  acted  upon.  It  follows  then  that  active  and  passive  do 
not  denote  two  diil'erent  kinds  of  verb,  but  one  kind  under  twodifTerenl 
forms,  denominated  the  Active  and  Passive  voice.  It  is  manifest,  how- 
ever, that  though  both  these  forms  express  the  same  act,  yet  the  subject 
of  each  stands  in  a  different  relation  to  that  act.  The  subject  of  the  ac- 
tive voice  puts  forth  the  act  expressed  by  the  verb,  the  subject  of  the  pas 
eive  receives  it :  in  other  words,  the  subject^af ahe'verb  in  the  active 
voice  is  active ;  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  ptissive  voice  \s  passive. 

This  power  of  the  verb  cntiblesus  not  only  to  vurv'the  form  of  expres- 
sion at  pleasure,  but  to  fix  the  attention  on  the  actor  without  regard  to 
the  object ;  as,  "  Jame.^  reads  ; "  or  on  the  object  without  regard  to  the 
actor;  as,  "virtue  is  praised.  This  maybe  necessary  when,  as  in  some 
cases,  the  actor,  or,  in  others,  the  object,  is  either  unknown,  or  unimpoj 
tant,  or,  for  some  reason,  we  may  wish  it  not  to  be  mentioned. 

2.  Intransitive  verbs  are  sometimes  renaerea  transitive,  ana  so  capa- 
ble of  a  passive  fonn,  1st.  By  the  addition  of  another  word  ;  thus,  "  I 
^augk,"  is  intransitive,  and  cannot  have  the  passive  form  ;  but,  "I  laugh 
at,"  is  transitive,  and  has  the  passive  ;  as,  I  "am  laughed  at."  2.  When 
followed  by  a  noun  of  the  same  or  similar  signification  as  an  object ; 
as,  intr.  I  run  ;  trans.  I  run  a  race ;  passive,  A  race  is  run  by  me. 

3.  The  same  verbs  are  sometimes  used  in  a  transitive,  and  some- 
times in  an  intransitive  sense;  thus,  in  the  phrase,  "  Charity  thinketh  no 
evil,"  think  is  transitiTe  :  in  the  phrase,  "  Think  on  me,"  it  is  intransitive. 

4.  Many  verbs  in  the  active  voice  by  an  idiom  peculiar  to  the  English, 
are  used  in  a  sense  nearly  allied  to  the  passive,  but  for  which  the  pas- 
sive will  not  always  be  a  proper  substitute.  Thus,  we  say,  "  This  field 
ploughs  well ;"  "  These  lines  read  smoothly ;"  "  This  fruit  tastes  bitter ;" 
"Linen  loears  better  than  cotton."  The  idea  here  expressed,  is  quite  dif- 
ferent from  that  expressed  by  the  passive  form,  "  This  field  is  well 
plouglied ;"  "  These  lines  are  smoothly  read."  Sometimes,  however, 
the  same  idea  is  expressed  by  both  forms ;  thus,  "  Wheat  sells  readily," 
or  "is sold  readily  at  an  advanced  price."  (Expressions  of  this  kind 
are  usually  made  in  French  by  the  reflected  verb  •  thus,  "  Ce  champ  m 


^  22.  ETYMOLOGY.  35 

l<d>oare  bien ;"  "  Ce3  lignes  se  lisent  aisement.")  Wiien  used  in  ihia 
sense,  they  may  properly  be  ranked  w;tli  intransitive  verbs,  as  ihey  are 
never  followed  by  an  objective  case 

§  22.  OF  THE  MOODS.* 

Mood  is  tlie  mode  or  mam«er  of  expressing  the  sig- 
nification of  the  verb. 

Verbs  have  five  moods ;  namely,  the  Indicative, 
Potential^  Subjunctive,  hnperative,  and  Infinitive. 

1.  The  Indicative  mood  simply  declares  a  thing; 
as,  He  loves  ;  He  is  loved  ;  Or.  it  asks  a  question  ;  as, 
Lovest  thou  me? 

2.  The  Potential  mood  never  declares  the  positive 
existence  of  a  thing,  either  as  present,  past,  or  future  ; 
but  simply  the  possibility,  liberty,  power,  will,  or 
obligation  to  be,  to  do,  or  to  suffer ;  as,  The  wind 
may  bloia ;  We  may  ivalk  or  lide ;  I  can  swim ; 
He  wonld  not  stay ;  You  should  obey  your  parents. 

3.  The  Su.bpinctive  mood  represents  a  thing  under 
a  condition,  supposition,  motive,  wish,  (fee.  and  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  conjunction,  expressed  or  understood,  and 
attended  by  another  verb  in  the  indicative  future,  po- 
tential, or  imperative  ;  as,  "  If  thy  presence  go  not 
with  us,  carry  us  not  up  hence." 

4.  The  Imperative  mood  commands,  exhorts,  en- 
treats, or  permits ;  as.  Do  this  ;  Remember  thy  Crea- 
tor ;  Hear,  O  my  people ;    Go  thy  way  for  this  time. 

5.  The  Infinitive  mood  expresses  a  thing  in  a 

*  Explanations  of  the  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs,  are  inserted  here  for  the  sake 
of  order ;  but  it  would  perhaps  be  improper  to  detain  the  learner  so  long  as  to 
commit  them  to  memory :  He  may,  therefore,  after  getting  the  definition  of  a  verb, 
proceed  to  the  inflection  of  it,  without  delay ;  and  when  he  comes  to  the  exercise* 
un  the  verbs,  he  can  look  back  to  the  definition  of  verbs,moods,  jtc.  os  oecnslon 
may  require 


r^r»  F.NGLISH    GKAM'.TAK.  §  'I'i 

general  manner,  without  any  distinction  o(  riunibtr 
or  person,  and  eommouly  has  A>  before  it ;  as,  To 
Lve. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  MOODS. 

1.  The  future  indicative  is  sometimes  used  jx)ten!ially  ;  i.e.  the  aux- 
iliaries will  and  shall  belong  to  the  present  potential,  as  well  as  may, 
or  can,  or  must,  when  they  express  present  willingness  or  obligation. 
In  this  case,  the  futurity  implied  is  contingent,  and  not  absolute  ;  as, 
He  toill  do  it,  if  properly  solicited.  And  hence  the  corresponding  woidd 
and  should,  as  well  as  might  and  could,  belong  to  the  past  tense.  The 
potential  mood  has  no  future  tense. 

2.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  always  dependent  upon,  or  is  subjoined 
to,  another  verb,  expressed  or  understood.  It  is  sometimes  called  con 
junctive,  because  it  is  usually  preceded  by  a  conjunction  ;  as,  if,  though, 
tmless,  &c  Sometimes  it  is  called  conditional,  because  it  usually  ex 
presses  a  condition  on  which  something  is  suspended.  It  differs  in 
form  from  the  indicative,  in  the  present  tense  only; — in  the  verb  to  be, 
in  the  present  and  past.  The  potential  mood  is  also  used  subjunc- 
tively,  i.  e.  as  dependent  on  another  verb ;  as.  He  would  do  it  if  he 
could  (do  it.) 

Respecting  the  form  and  extent  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  there  hoa 
been  some  variety  of  practice  among  writers,  and  much  variety  of  opi- 
nion among  Grammarians.  Some  deny  the  existence  of  a  subjunctive 
form  altogether  ;  and  consider  what  is  called  the  subjunctive  as  only 
an  elliptical  form  of  the  future  or  potential.  Among  these  are  Ash, 
Wilson,  Grant,  and  Crombie.  Others,  such  as  Johnson,  Ward, 
and  PiNNOCK,  assign  to  it  a  distinct  form  in  the  present  and  perfect, 
differing  from  the  indicative  in  having  the  second  and  third  persons 
singular  the  same  as  the  first.     Thus, 

Present  Sing.     //  I  love,  //thou  love,  //  he  love. 

Perfect  Sing.  //  I  have  loved,  //  thou  have  loved,  Tf  he  have 
loved. 
Though  some  examples  of  this  form  of  the  perfect  subjunctive  are  found 
in  old  writers  of  high  authority,  (see  1  Tim.  v.  10)  it  is  believed  (o  he 
nowncariy,  if  not  entirely,  obsolete.  Lowth,  andCooTE,and  Murray, 
and  the  great  body  of  Grammarians  since  their  day.  agreeably  to  the 
practice  of  the  most  correct  and  elegant  writers,  limit  the  subjunctive 
termination  of  the  principal  verb  to  the  second  and  third  persons  singu- 
lar of  the  present  tense ;  all  the  other  parts  being  pre<  isf  ly  as  the  in- 


§  22.  ETYMOLOGY.  37 

dicative.  The  weight  of  authority  is  decidedly  in  favour  of  this  prao- 
tice,  and  accordingly  in  tlieir  place  will  be  found  full  paradigms  of  the 
subjunctive  mood  in  this  form. 

3.  The  imperative  mood,  strictly  speaking,  has  only  the  second  per- 
son, singular  and  plural ;  because,  in  commanding,  exhorting,  &c.  the 
language  of  address  is  always  used  ;  thus,  "  Let  him  love,"  is  equiva- 
lent to,  "Let  thou  him  love  ;"  where  Let  is  the  proper  imperative,  and 
love  the  infinitive  governed  by  it.  (Syntax,  §  67, — 1,  2.) 

4.  The  infinitive  mood  may  be  considered  as  a  verbal  noun,  having 
Uie  nominative  and  objective  cases,  but  not  the  possessive  ;  and  hence 
it  is  used  both  as  the  subject  of  another  verb,  and  as  the  object  after  it. 
(Syntax,  §  47,  Rule  ii. ;  and  §  4S,  Rem.  3.) 

Note.  Some  Grammarians  are  of  opinion  that  no  more  moods  or 
tenses  ought  to  be  assigned  to  the  verb  in  English,  than  are  distin- 
guished by  difl'orence  of  form  in  the  simple  verb.  This  principle  rejects 
at  once  the  whole  passive  voice;  and  in  the  active,  retains  only  the 
present  and  past  tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  the  present  of  the 
subjunctive.  To  carry  out  this  principle  to  its  full  extent,  we  should 
reject  also  the  plural  number  of  the  tenses  that  are  left;  for  this  is  al- 
waj's  in  the  same  form  with  the  first  person  singular.  This  certainly 
reduces  the  English  verb  to  very  narrow  limits,  and  renders  it  a  very 
snnple  thing  ;  so  simple,  indeed,  as  to  be  of  little  use,  being  capable  of 
expressing  an  action  or  state  only  in  two  relations  of  time. 

This  simplification  of  the  verb,  however,  tends  only  to  perplex  the 
language  ;  for  though  it  reduces  the  number  of  moods  and  tenses,  it 
doss  not,  and  can  not,  reduce  the  number  of  the  forms  of  speech,  by 
which  the  different  times  or  modes  of  action  are  expressed.  It  is  cer- 
tain, for  example,  that  we  have  such  forms  of  speech  as,  "  have  loved," 
"shall  love,"  "  might  love,"  &c.  Now  since  these  and  other  similar 
forms  of  speech  only  express  different  relations  of  time  and  manner  of 
the  one  act,  "  to  love,"  it  certainly  does  seem  more  easy  and  simple 
to  regard  them  as  different  moods  and  tenses  of  the  verb  to  love,  than 
to  elevate  the  auxiliary  to  the  rank  of  a  principal  verb,  and  then  to 
combine  them  syntactically  with  the  verb  to  love.  Indeed,  to  dispose 
of  them  in  this  way  satisfactorily,  is  not  a  quite  easy  or  simple  matter. 
For  example,  in  the  sentence,  "I  have  written  a  letter,"  it  is  easy 
enough  to  say  that  have  is  a  verb  trans.  &c.  and  written  a  perfect  par- 
ticiple ;  but  when  we  inquire,  what  does  have  govern  ?  what  aoes 
loritten  agree  with?  a  correct  and  satisfactory  answer  will  not  be  so 
easilv  found.  This  example  will  perhaps  show  that  it  is  much  easier, 
and  quite  as  satisfactory,  to  rank  the  expression  as  a  certain  mood  and 
tense  of  the  verb,  "to  write." 

This  theory  has  its  foundation  in  the  supposition,  that  a  tense,  or 
mood  must  necessarily  mean  a  distinct  form  of  the  simple  verb.  This 
supposition,  however,  is  entirely  gratuitous.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
meaning  of  the  word  mood  or  tense,  which  countenances  it.  A  verb  ia 
a  word  which  expresses  action  ;  tense,  expresses  the  action  connected 
with  certain  relations  of  time ;  mood,  represents  it  as  farther  modified  by 


38  ENGLISH    <;UAMMAR.  §  23. 

circumstances  of  contingfincy,  condilionality,  &c. ;  but  whetlior  tlicso 
modifications  arc  expressed  by  a  clianj;o  in  the  form  of  Ibe  simple  vnrb, 
or  by  its  combination  with  certain  auxiliaries,  seems  to  be  a  matter 
perfectly  indifferent.  Indeed,  the  generally  received  opinion  is,  tbat 
the  different  forms  of  the  verb,  denominated  mood  and  tfnse,  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  are  nothing  more  than  the  incorporation  of  the  auxiliary 
with  the  root  of  the  simple  verb.  If  so,  why  should  not  the  uniform 
juxtaposition  of  the  auxiliary  with  the  verb,  to  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose, be  called  by  the  same  name  ?  If  a  certain  auxiliary,  connected 
with  a  verb,  express  a  certain  relation  of  time,  properly  denominated 
the  future  tense ;  what  essential  difll.Tence  can  it  make,  whether  the 
two  words  combine  into  one, or  merely  stand  together?  On  the  whole, 
then,  there  is  nothing  gained  by  the  proposed  simplification  :  Indeed, 
on  the  contrary,  much,  even  of  simplicity,  is  lost ;  and  it  moreover 
deprives  our  language  of  the  analogy  which  it  has  in  mood  and  tense 
with  other  languages,  modern  as  well  as  ancient;  and  if  adopted,  in- 
stead of  smoothing  the  path  of  the  learner,  it  would  tend  only  to  perplex 
and  obscure  it. 

§  23.  OF  TENSES  OR  DISTINCTIONS  OF  TIME. 

Tenses  are  certain  modifications  of  the  verb  which 
point  out  the  distinctions  of  time. 

The  tenses  in  Enj^lish  are  usually  reckoned  six. 
The  Presefit,  the  Imperfect,  the  Perfect,  the  Phi 
perfect,  the  Future,  and  the  Future  Perfect. 

Time  is  naturally  divided  into  the  Present,  Past,  and  Future :  And 
an  action  may  be  represented,  either  as  incomplete  and  continuing, 
or,  as  completed  at  the  time  spoken  of.  This  gives  rise  to  six  tenses, 
only  two  of  which  are  expressed  in  English  by  a  distinct  form  of  the 
verb.  The  others  arc  formed  by  the  aid  of  auxiliary  verbs,  thus  : 
p  S  'Action  continuing  ;   as,  I  love,  I  do  love,  or  I  am  loving. 

(  Jiction  completed;  as, I  have  loved. 
p  <  .Action  continuing  ;  as,  I  loved,  I  did  love,  or  I  was  loving. 

f  Action  completed  ;  as,  I  had  loved. 
„  S  'Action  continuing  ;  as,  I  shall  or  will  love. 

(  Action  completed  ;  as,  I  shall  have  loved. 
In  order  better  to  express  the  time,  and  the  state  of  the  action,  by 
one  designation,  these  tenses,  in  the  above  order,  may  be  properly  de- 
nominated. The  Present,  the  Present-perfect,  the  Past,  the  Past-perfect, 
the  Future,  and  the  Future-perfect. 

1.  The  Pre&ent  tepse  expresses  what  is  going  on 
at  the  present  tinie  ;  as,  I  love  you. 


§  24.  ETYMOLOGY.  39 

2.  The  Imperfect  tense  represents  an  action  or 
event  indefinitely  as  past ;  as,  He  broke  the  bottle 
and  spilt  the  brandy;  or  it  represents  the  action  de- 
finitely as  unfinished  and  continuing  at  a  certain 
time,  now  entirely  past ;  as,  My  father  was  coming 
home  when  I  met  him. 

3.  The  Perfect  tense  represents  an  action  as  fin- 
ished at  the  present  time  ;  as,  John  has  cut  his  fin- 
ger ;  1  have  sold  my  horse  ;  I  have  done  nothing 
this  week. 

4.  The  Pluperfect  represents  an  action  or  event 
as  completed  at  or  before  a  certain  past  time ;  as, 
•'  All  the  judges  had  taken  their  places  before  Sir 
Roger  came." 

5.  The  Ftiture  tense  represents  an  action  or  event 
indefinitely  as  yet  to  come ;  as,  "  Iwillsee  you  again, 
and  your  hearts  shall  rejoice." 

6.  The  Future-perfect  intimates  that  an  action 
or  event  will  be  completed  at  or  before  a  certain  time 
yet  future  ;  as,  I  shall  have  got  my  lesson  before  ten 
o'clock  to-morrow. 

Obs.  The  tenses  inflected  without  an  auxiliary,  are  called  Simple 
tenses ;  those  with  an  auxiliary,  are  called  Compound  tenses.  In  the 
simple  form  of  the  verb,  the  simple  tenses  are  the  Present  and  Imper- 
fect, Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  Active ;  all  the  other  tenses  are  com- 
pmmd. 

§24.  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  TENSES. 

I.  The  Present  tense  has  three  distinct  forms — 
•:he  simple;  as,  I  read;  the  emphatic;  as,  I  do 
read ;  and  the  progressive  ;  as,  I  am  reading.  (§  28.) 
The  first  or  simple  form  expresses- 


40  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  24. 

1.  The  simple  existence  of  the  fact;  as,  He  speaks;  She  writes; 
They  walk. 

2.  It  is  used  to  express  what  is  habitual  or  always  true  ;  as,  He 
takes  snuff;  She  goes  to  church  ;  Virtue  is  its  own  reward.  In  this 
sense  it  is  applied  to  express  the  feelings  which  persons  long  since 
dead,  or  events  already  past  usually  excite  in  our  minds  ;  as,  Nero  is 
abhorred  for  liis  cruelty ;  Milton  is  admired  for  his  sublimity. 

3.  In  historical  narration,  it  is  used  with  great  effect  for  the  past 
tense ;  as,  "  Cajsar  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the  Rubicon,  and  enters  Italy 
with  five  thousand  men" — and  sometimes  for  the  Perfect ;  as,  "  In  the 
book  of  Genesis,  Moses  tells  us  who  were  the  descendants  of  Abra 
ham,"  for  has  told  us. 

4.  When  preceded  by  such  words  as  when,  before,  as  soon  as,  after, 
and  the  like,  it  expresses  the  relative  time  of  a  future  action ;  as. 
When  he  comes  he  will  be  welcome ;  As  soon  as  the  Post  arrives,  the 
letters  will  be  distributed. 

5.  The  Emphatic  form  expresses  a  fact  with  em- 
phasis, and  is  made  by  adding  the  simple  form-with- 
out inflection  lo  the  auxihary  do  in  the  Present  and 
Imperfect  Indicative  ;  as,  I  do  love,  I  did  love :  and 
by  placing  an  emphasis  on  the  auxihary  in  the  Com- 
pound tenses;  as,  I  will  do  it.  He  must^o.    §  26. 

6.  The  Progressive  form  represents  an  action  as 
begun,  and  in  progress  at  the  time  of  speaking.  It 
is  formed  by  annexing  the  Present  participle  to  the 
verb  to  be,  as  an  auxiliary,  through  all  its  moods  and 
tenses  ;  as,  I  am  writing,  I  was  writing,  &c.   §  28. 

II.  The  Imperfect  tense  has  three  distinct  forms  corresponding  to 
those  in  the  present  tense :  thus,  I  loved,  I  did  love,  I  %cas  loving. 
The  first  of  these  may  be  called  simple  and  indefinite,  because  in  itself 
it  simply  represents  an  action  as  past,  without  referring  necessarily  to 
any  particular  time  at  which  it  took  place ;  as,  "  Caesar  conquered 
Gaul."  It  may,  however,  be  rendered  definite  by  introducing  some 
definition  of  time ;  as,  yesterday,  last  week,  &c.  The  second  form 
is  emphatic,  and  expresses  the  same  idea  with  emphasis.  The  third 
form  may  be  termed  definite,  since  it  intimates  an  action  cpntinuing, 
and  necessarily  refers  to  a  certain  past  time  expressed  or  understood ; 


V   24.  ETYMOLOGV.  41 

as,  My  father  was  coming  home  when  I  met  him.  All  the  forms  of 
this  tense  speak  of  the  action  or  event  as  taking  place  in  a  time  now 
entirely  past ;  Or  if  within  a  portion  of  time,  some  of  which  still  re- 
mains, yet  at  a  point  of  time  in  that  portion  having  no  connexion  with 
the  present  moment ;  as,  I  wrote  to-day. 

III.  The  Perfect  tense  never  connects  an  action  or  event  with  time 
entirely  past,  but  always  with  time  present ;  i.  e.  with  the  present  in- 
stant, or  with  a  period  some  part  of  which  is  yet  present ;  as,  this  day, 
loeek,  year,  &.c.  Thus,  we  cannot  say,  I  have  written  yesterday ;  but, 
I  have  xoHtten  to-day,  tliis  week,  &c.  Of  this  tense  there  are  two 
forms,  e.  g.  1  have  loritlen,  and  I  have  been  writing.  The  latter  pro- 
perly represents  the  action  as  just  completed  at  the  present  time;  the 
former  is  less  definite,  expressing  an  action  completed  within  a  period 
extending  to  the  present,  but  giving  no  information  at  what  point  in 
that  period  the  completion  was  effected  ;  as,  "  Many  discoveries  have 
been  made  in  philosophy  and  the  arts  since  the  days  of  Bacon."  It  is 
also  used  to  express  an  action  or  state  continued  through  a  period 
reaching  to  the  present ;  as,  He  has  studied  grammar  six  months — or, 
if  the  action  itself  is  long  since  past,  still  it  is  continued  to  the  present 
in  its  consequences.  Thus  we  can  say,  "Cicero  has  tcritten  orations," 
because  the  orations  are  still  in  existence ;  but  we  cannot  say,  "Cice- 
ro has  written  poems,"  but  "  Cicero  lorote  poems,"  because  the  poenw 
do  not  now  exist  Sometimes  this  tense  is  employed  to  express  an 
attribute  the  contrary  of  that  which  is  expressed  by  the  verb.  Thus, 
the  Latins  used  vixif,  "He  hath  lived," to  denote  "He  is  dead;"  Ilium 
fuit,  "  Troy  has  been,"  to  signify  "  Troy  is  no  more."  So  in  English, 
"I  have  been  young,"  equivalent  to  "  Now  I  am  old." 

IV.  The  Pluperfect  tense  has  the  same  relation  to  the  Imperfect 
tense  that  the  Perfect  has  to  the  present  tense.  It  has  all  that  variety 
of  form  and  use  which  the  perfect  has,  but  connects  the  completed  ac- 
tion or  event  expressed  by  the  verb  with  some  point  or  period  of 
lime  now  wholly  past ;  as,  then,  yesterday,  last  centwy,  &c. ;  as,  I 
had  wn/tcn  yesterday;  Many  discoveries  in  philosophy  and  the  arts 
had  been  made  before  the  days  of  Bacon ;  At  that  time  he  had  studied 
grammar  six  months. 

V.  The  same  general  observations  apply  to  the  Future  and  Future- 
perfect  tenses,  in  relation  to  a  point  or  period  of  time  yet  future. 

VI.  The  six  tenses  here  enumerated  belong  but  in  part  to  all  tho 
moods,  except  the  indicative.  The  potential  has  only  four  tenses;  the 
subjunctive,  in  most  verbs,  only  one  distinct  from  the  indicative ;  the 
imperative  but  one  j  the  infinitive  two ;  and  the  participle  three. 

5* 


42  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  25,  26 

VII.  The  Past  tenses  both  of  the  Potential  and  Subjunctive  mooda 
are  much  less  definite  with  respect  to  the  lime  of  the  action  or  state 
expressed  by  the  verb,  than  the  same  tenses  in  tlic  Indicative.  For 
examples  of  this  in  the  Potential  mood,  see  §  20,  Obs.  2. 

The  Imperfect  subjunctive  expresses  contingency,  &c.  respecting 
what  is  past,  but  yet  unknown,  only  when  referring  to  past  time  ex- 
pressed or  implied ;  as,  "  If  I  saw  your  friend  last  year  I  have  for- 
gotten it."  But  in  connection  with  the  potential  mood,  or  not  re. 
ferring  to  past  time,  the  imperfect  subjunctive  has  this  i)eculiarity 
of  usage — it  expresses  a  supposition  with  respect  to  something  pre- 
sent, but  implies  a  denial  of  the  thing  supposed ;  thus,  "  If  I  had 
the  money  now  I  would  pay  it,"  implies  that  I  have  it  not.  '« If  he 
were  well  (now)  he  would  go," — implying  "  he  is  sick."  The  pre- 
sent  tense  here  conveys  a  very  different  idea ;  thus,  •'  If  I  have  the 
money,  I  will  pay  it,"  &c.  In  order  to  express  the  first  of  these 
examples  in  past  time,  the  pluperfect  must  be  used  ;  thus.  If  I  had 
had  the  money  yesterday,  I  would  have  paid  it. 

§  25.  OF  NUMBER  AND  PERSON. 

1.  Every  tense  of  the  verb  except  in  the  infini 
tive  mood  has  two  Numbers,  the  singular  and  plural ; 
and  each  of  these,  three  Persons. 

The  First  person  asserts  of  the  person  speaking  ; 
as,  I  write,  we  write. 

The  Second,  asserts  of  the  person  spoken  to  ;  as, 
Thou  writest,  ye  or  you  write. 

The  Third,  asserts  of  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of;  as,  Rewrites,  they  write.  §6  and  §15.  Obs.  1. 

§  26.  OF  THE  CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. 

1.  The  conjugation  of  a  verb,  is  the  regular  com- 
bination and  arrangement  of  its  several  moods,  tenses^ 
numbers,  and  persons. 

2.  In  parsing,  a  verb  is  conjugated  by  giving  Its 
Present,  and  Imperfect  tenses,  and  Perfect  Parti- 


5*  26.  ETYMOLOGY.  43 

ciph  whether  it  be  in  the  active  or  in  the  passive 
voice;  thus, 

Pre-oent,  Imperfect,  Perf.  Part. 

ArriVE.  l,ove,  Loved,  Loved 

Passive.  Am  loved,  Was  loved,  Been  loved. 

3.  The  regular  verb,  to  love,  is  inflected  through 
all  its  raooJs  and  tenses,  as  follows  : 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Present.  Love.  Imperfect.  Loved.  Per/.  Part.  Loved. 

«■. 
;■  '  '  INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

'<.  . 

Present -Tense.     (Simple  Form.) 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  person  I         love.  1.  We  love. 

2.  Thou  lovest  2.  Ye  0,-  you+  love. 

3.  He     loves  or  lovetli.         3.  They  love. 

Present  Tense.  .  (Emphatic  Form.) 

Sing^ilar,  PturaL 

1.  I  do           ■  love.  1.  We  do     love. 

2.  Thou  dost  love.  2.  You  do   love. 

3.  He  does      love.  3.  They  do  love. 

Imperfect,  (or  Pas<)  Tense.  (^Simple  Form.) 

Singular.  j^-                       Plural. 

i.  I          loved.  jf        '            '•  ^^®     loved. 

2.  Thoulovedsl.  >■*      f            2.  You   loved. 

3,  He      loved.  3.  They  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense.     (Emj)hatic  Form.) 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  did  love,  1,  We  did     love. 

2.  Thou  didst  love.  2.  You  did    love. 
V  He  did          love.  3.  They  did  love. 

•  You  has  always  a  plural  verb,  even  when  applied  to  a  single  individual.— 
%  li,  Obs.  3.     r«,  being  seldom  Qsed,  is  omitted  in  the  other  tenses  to  8av«  nprn 


44  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  26 

Perfect,  (or  Present  Perfect)  Tense. 

Sijjns — Have,  hast,  has  or  luUh. 

Singular.  Plural, 

1.  I  have  loved.  1.  We  liave    loved. 

2.  Thou  hast         loved.  2.  You  have   loved.   • 

3.  He  has  or  hath  loved.  3.  They  have  loved. 

Pluperfect,  (or  Past  Perfect)  Tense. 

Signs — Had,  hadst. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  loved,  1.  We  had     loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved.  2.  You  had   loved. 
5.  He  had        loved.  3.  They  had  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

Signs — Shall  or  loill. 
Singular.  Plural. 

t.  I  shall  or  will  love.  1.  We    shall  or  will  love. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love.  2.  You  shall  or  will  love. 

3.  He      shall  or  will  love.  3.  They  shall  or  will  love. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

Signs — Shall  have,  or  will  have. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Shall  or  will  have  loved.  1.  Shall  or  will  have  loved. 

2.  Shalt  or  wilt  have  loved.  2.  Shall  or^ will  have  loved. 

3.  Shall  or  will  have  loved.  3.  Shalfcor  vill  have  loved. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Signs — May,  can,  or  must. 

Singular.  Plural, 

1.  May    or  can  or  must  love.  1.  May  or  can  or  must  love. 

2.  Mayst  or  canst  or  must  love.  2.  May  or  can  or  must  love. 

3.  May    or  can  or  must  love.  Z.  May  or  can  or  must  love. 


J  36  ETYMOLOGY.  45 

Imperfect,  (or  Past)  Tense. 

Signs — Might,  could,  toould,  or  should. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Might,    could,    would,    or        1.  Might,    could,    would,   or 

should  love.  should  love. 

2.  Mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,        2.  Might,    could,    would,    or 

or  should  st  love.  should  love. 

3.  Might,    could,    would,    or        3.  Might,    could,    would,    or 

should  love.  should  love. 

Perfect,  (or  Present  Perfect)  Tense. 

Signs — May  have,  or  must  have. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  May     or  must  have  loved.  1.  May  or  must  have  loved. 

2.  Mayst  or  must  have  loved.         2.  May  or  must  have  loved. 

3.  May     or  must  have  loved.         3.  May  or  must  have  loved. 

Pluperfect,  (or  Past  Perfect)  Tense. 

Signs — Might  have,  could  have,  would  have,  or  should  have. 
Singidar.  Plural. 

1.  Might,    could,    would,    or        1.  Might,    could,     would,    or 

should  have  loved.  should  have  loved. 

2.  Mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or        2.  Might,    could,    would,    or 

shouldst  have  loved.  should  have  loved. 

3.  Might,    could,    would,    or       3.  Might,    could,    would,    or 

should  have  loved.  should  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  //I  love.  •  1.  //we  love. 

2.  //thou  love.  2.  //"you  love. 

3.  If  he  love.  3.  //they  love.* 

Emphatic  Form. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  do  love.  1.  //we  do  love. 

2.  //"thou  do  love.  2.  //you  do  love. 

3.  //he  do  love.  3.  //they  do  love. 

•  The  conjunctions,  if,  though,  unless,  &c.  do  not  form  any  part  of  tlie  »ub- 


46  ENGLISH  GKA9IMAK.  §26. 

Imperfect,  (or  Past)  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  ^I  loved.  1.  //we  loved. 

2.  //"thou  lovedst.  2.  //you  loved. 

3.  //he  loved.  3.  //they  loved. 

Emphatic  Form. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  did  love.  1.  //we  did  love. 

2.  Jfthou  didst  love.  2.  //you  did  love. 

3.  ^he  did  love.  3.  //they  did  love. 

Perfect,  (or  Present  Perfect)  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  //"I  have  loved.  1.  // we  have  loved. 

2.  //"thou  hast  loved.  2.  //"you  have  loved. 

3.  //"he  has  or  hath  loved.  3.  //"  they  have  loved. 

Pluperfect,  (or  Past  Perfect)  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural, 

1.  //"I  had  loved.  1.  //we  had  loved. 

2.  If  thou  hadst  loved.  2.  If  you  had  loved. 

3.  If  he  had  loved.  3.  //they  had  loved. 

Future  Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  love.  1.  If  we  shall  or  will  love. 

2.  If  thou  shall  or  wilt  love.  2.  If  you  shall  or  will  love. 

3.  jr/"he  shall  or  will  love.  3.  If  they  shall  or  will  loTe. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  loved.  l.Ifwe  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

2.  Jfthou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved.  2.  //you  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

3.  //"he  shall  or  will  have  loved.  3.  If  they  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

jiinctive  mood,  but  are  usually  placed  before  it,  to  express  a  condition,  suppori- 
<ion,  motive,  wish,  &c.    See  ^  31,  3,  and  ^  22,  Obs.  2. 
N.  B.    For  the  Progressive  form  of  the  verb,  see  $  28. 


§  26.  ETYMOLOGY.  47 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
Singular.  PluraL 

2.  Love,  or  Love  thou,  or        2.  Love,  or  Love  ye  or  yoa, 
Do  thou  love.  or  Do  ye  love. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD, 
Present.  To  love.  PerfecL  To  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present.  Loving.     Perfect.  Loved.      Compound  perf.  Having  loved. 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  TENSES  OF  VERBS,  AND  CASES  OP  NOVIfS 
AND  PRONOUNS, 

Tell  the  person^  number,  mood,  arid  tense  of, — They 
love  ;  learn  you  ;  they  had  walked  ;  he  shall  have  learned  ; 
thou  hadst  painted  ;  we  can  gain  ;  to  form ;  to  have  joined ; 
obeys  ;  lovedst ;  teaches  ;  we  could  stand ;  she  has  learned ; 
we  shall  have  gone  ;  they  will  have  come  ;  I  do  love  ;  thou 
didst  love  ;  they  did  love. 

Parse  the  following  words  and  sentences  .-* — We  love 
him  ;  I  love  you  ;  James  loves  me  ;  it  amuses  him  ;  we 
shall  conduct  them ;  they  will  divide  the  spoil ;  soldiers 
should  defend  their  country ;  friends  invite  friends  ;  she 
can  read  her  lesson  ;  she  may  play  a  tune  ;  you  might 
please  her ;  thou  mayest  ask  him  ;  he  may  have  betrayed 
us ;  we  might  have  diverted  the  children  ;  Tom  can  de- 
liver the  message. 

I  love  ;   to  love  ;   love  ;    reprove  thou  ;   has  loved  ;  we 

*  QUESTIONS  which  maij  be  put  to  the  pvpils:  — How  do  you  know  that  love 
is  plural  1  Mns.  Because  vie,  its  nominative,  is  plural.  How  do  you  know  that 
love  is  the  first  person  ^  j3ns.  Recause  we  is  the  first  personal  pronoun,  and  th* 
verb  is  always  of  the  same  number  and  person  with  the  noun  or  pronoun  be 
fore  it. 

Many  of  the  phrases  in  this  page  may  be  converted  into  exercises  of  a  different 
kind ;  thus,  the  meaning  of  ilie  sentence.  We  love  him,  may  fee  expressed  by  the 
passive  voice;  as  He  is  loved  by  ns.  It  may  also  be  turned  Into  a  question,  or 
made  a  negative ;  as,  Do  we  love  kim  f  &c.     fVe  do  not  love  him. 


48  ENGLISH    GUAMMAR.  §  27. 

tied  the  knot ;  if  we  love  ;  if  thou  love  ;  they  could  have 
commanded  armies  ;  to  love  ;  to  baptize  ;  to  have  loved  ; 
loved  ;  loving  ;  to  survey  ;  having  surveyed  ;  write  a  let- 
ter ;  read  your  lesson  ;  thou  hast  obeyed  my  voice  ;  ho- 
nour thy  father ;   his  mother  teaches  him  ;   love  ;    loved. 

The  teacher,  if  he  chooses,  may  now  acquaint  the  learner  with  the 
diflTurence  between  the  Nominative  and  Objective. 

When  the  verb  is  active,  the  Nominative  acts ;  the  Objective  h  acted 
upon ;  as,  He  cats  apples. 

The  Nominative  commonly  comes  before  the  verb  ;  the  Objective 
after  it;  as,  We  saw  them.  In  asking  questions,  the  nominative  fol- 
lows the  verb  in  the  simple  tenses,  and  the  auxiliary  in  the  compound 
tenses;  as,  Lovest  tliou  mcl  did  he  come?  may  ice  go?  is  it  fin- 
ished ? 

We  may  parse  the  first  sentence,  for  example.  We  love;  We,  i[n 
first  personal  pronoun,  masculine  or  feminine,  plural,  the  nominative; 
love,  a  verb  trans,  in  thepres.  indicative,active,  first  pers.  plu.;  hhn,  the 
third  personal  pronoun,  masculine,  singular,  the  objective. 

§  27.  The  intransitive  irregular  verb  To  be,  is  in- 
fleeted  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  as  follows : 

Present,  Am.         Imperfect.  Was.         Perfect  participle.  Baea. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         am.  1.  We    are. 

2.  Thou  art.  2.  You  are. 

3.  He     is.  3.  They  are. 

Imperfect,  (or  Past)  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was.  1.  We     were 

2.  Thou  wasL  2.  You   were. 

3.  He      was.  3.  They  were. 


§37. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


40 


I.  I 


Perfect,  (or  Present  Perfect)  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I         have  been.  1.  We     have  been. 

2.  Thou  hast  been.  2.  You    have  been. 

3.  He     has    been.  3.  They  have  been. 

Pluperfect,  (or  Past  Perfect)  Tense. 

Singular,  Plural. 

i.  I  had     been.  1,  We     had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been,  2.  You    bad  been. 

3.  He      had     been  3.  They  had  been. 

Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

shall  or  will  be.  1.  We  shall    or  will  be. 

3.  Thou  shall  or  wilt  be.  2,  You  shall    or  will  be. 

3.  He      sliall  or  will  be,  3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 

Future-perfect  Tense. 

Singular  Plural, 

1.  Shall  or  will  have  been.  1.  Shall  or  will  have  been. 

2.  Shalt  or  wilt  have  been,  2.  Shall  or  will  have  been. 

3.  Shall  or  will  have  been.  3.  Shall  or  will  have  been. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plurcd. 

1.  I         may        or  can     w        I.  We    may      or    can    or 

must  be.  must  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst     or  canst   or       2.  You   may      or    can    or 

must  be.  must  be. 

3.  He     may        or  can      or        3.  They  may      or    can    or 

must  be.  must  be. 

Imperfect,  (or  Past)  Tense. 

Singular,  Plural, 

1.  Might,    could,     would,     or      1.  Might,    could,    would,    or 

should  be.  should  be. 

2.  Mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or      2.  Might,    could,     would,    or 

shouldst  be.  should  be. 

3.  Might,    could,    would,    or      3.  Might,    could,    would,    or 

should  be.*  should  be. 

•  ffere  is  sometimes  used  for  would  be  in  the  3rd  singular ;  tlius,  "  That  vtrt 
ow  indeed  "—Milt. 

6 


60  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  27 

Perfect,  (or  Present  Perfect)  Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  May     or  must  have  been.  1.  May  or  must  have  been, 

2.  Mayst  or  must  have  been.  2.  May  or  must  have  been. 
3    May     or  must  liave  been.  3.  May  or  must  have  been. 

Pluperfect,  (or  Past  Perfect)  Tense. 

Singidar.  Plural. 

1.  Might,     could,     would,     or       I.  Might,     could,     would,    or 

should  have  been.  should  have  been. 

2.  Mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or       2.   Might,     could,     would,     o» 

sliouldsl  have  been,  should  have  been. 

3.  Might,     could,     would,     or       3.  Might,     could,     would,     o' 

should  have  been.  should  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singjilaf.  PluraL 

1.  If  I       be.  I.  //we    be. 

2.  //thou  be.  2.  //you  be. 

3.  //he      be.  3,  //they  be. 

Imperfect,  (or  Past)  Tense. 

Singxdar.  PluraL 

1.  Were  I,        or  if  I      were.  1.  Were  we,     or  if  we   were. 

2.  Wert  thou,  or  i/ thou  wert.  2.  Were  you,    on/ you  were. 

3.  Were  he,     or  if  he    were.  3.  Were  they,  or  ?/ they  were. 

Perfect,  (or  Present  Perfect)  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        have  been.  1.  If  we   have  been. 

2.  //thou  hast  been.  2.  //  you  have  been. 

3.  //he     has    been.  3.  //they  have  been. 

Pluperfect,  (or  Past  Perfect)  Tense. 

Singular.  PluraL 

1.  If  I       had    been.  1.  //we   had  been. 

2.  //"thou  hadst  been.  2.  //you  had  been. 
S.  If  he     had    been.  3.  ^  they  had  been. 


§  27.  ETYMOLOGY*  61 

Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  //"I  shall        or  will  be.  1.  //we  shall     or  will  be. 

2.  Jf  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be.  2.  //"you  shall   or  will  be. 

3.  //"heshall      or  will  be.  3.  // they  shall  or  will  be. 

Future-perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Jfl  shall       or  will  have  been.  1.  Jfwe  shall    or  will  have  been. 

2.  //"thoushaltor  wilt  have  been.  2.  //" you  shall  or  will  have  been. 

3.  If  he  shall    or  will  have  been.  3.  If  they  shall  or  will  have  been. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.  Be,*  or  Be  thou.  2.  Be,  or  Be  ye  or  you. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present.  To  be.  Perfect.  To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres.  Being.  Perf.  Been.  Compound-perfect.  Having  been 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  VERB  TO  BE. 

Am,  is,  art,  wast,  I  was,  they  were,  we  are,  hast  been, 
has  been,  we  have  been,  hadst  been,  he  had  been,  you 
have  been,  she  has  been,  we  were,  they  had  been. 

I  shall  be,  shalt  be,  we  will  be,  thou  wilt  be,  they  shall 
be,  it  will  be,  thou  wilt  have  been,  we  have  been,  they  will 
have  been,  we  shall  have  been,  am,  it  is. 

I  can  be,  mayest  be,  canst  be,  she  may  be,  you  may  be, 
he  must  be,  they  should  be,  mightst  be,  he  would  be,  it 
could  be,  wouldst  be,  you  could  be,  he  may  have  been, 
wast. 

We  may  have  been,  mayst  have  been,  they  may  have 
been,  I  might  have  been,  you  should  have  been,  wouldst 

*  Be  is  sometimes  used  in  the  Scriptures,  and  some  other  books,  for  the  pr$ 
sent  indicative ;  as,  "  We  be  true  men  ;'    for  "  We  arc  true  men." 


52  EN0LI8TI    OnAMMAR.  §  28,  29. 

have  been  ;  (if)  thou  be,  we  be,  he  be,  thou  wert,  we  were, 
I  be. 

Be  thou,  be,  to  be,  being,  to  have  been,  if  I  be,  be  ye, 
been,  be,  having  been,  if  we  be,  if  they  be,  to  be. 

Snow  is  white ;  he  was  a  good  man  ;  we  have  been 
younger  ;  she  has  been  happy ;  it  had  been  late  ;  we  are 
old  ;  you  will  be  wise  ;  it  will  be  time  ;  if  they  be  thine  ; 
be  cautious ;  be  heedful  youth ;  we  may  be  rich ;  they 
should  be  virtuous ;  thou  mightst  be  wiser ;  they  must 
have  been  excellent  scholars  ;  they  might  have  been  pow  • 
erful. 

§  28.  PROGRESSIVE  FORM. 

The  Progressive  form  of  the  verb  (§  24.  6)  is  in- 
flected by  prefixing  the  verb  to  he  through  all  its 
moods  and  tenses  to  the  present  participle ;  thus, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present.         1.  I  am  loving,  2.  Thou  art  loving,  &c. 

Imperfect.      1.  I  was  loving.  2.  Thou  wast  loving,  fee. 

Perfect.  1.  I  have  been  loving.  2.  Thou  hast  been  loving,  &c. 

Pluperfect.     1.  I  had  been  loving.  2.  Thou  hadst  been  loving,  &c. 

Future.  1.  I  shall  be  loving.  2.  Thou  shall  be  loving,  &c 

Future  perf.  1.  I  shall  or  will  have  2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been 
been  loving.  loving,  &c. 

Abfe.  In  this  manner  go  through  the  other  moods  and  tenses. 

§  29.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

The  Passive  voice  is  inflected  by  adding  the  perfect 
participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  tobe  {^  27.)  through 
all  its  moods  and  tenses  ;  thus, 

Pres.  Am  loved.     Imperfect,  Was  loved.      Perf.  Part.  Loved. 


^  29.  ETYMOLOGY.  63 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1.  I         am  loved. 

1 .  We    are  loved. 

2.  Thou  art  loved. 

2.  You    are  loved. 

3.  He       is  loved. 

3.  They  are  loved. 

Imperfect,  (or  Past)  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

I.  Was   loved. 

1.  Were  loved. 

2.  Wast  loved. 

2.  Were  loved. 

3,  Was  loved. 

3.  Were  loved. 

Perfect,  (or  Present  Perfect)  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1.  Have  been  loved. 

1.  Have  been  loved. 

2.  Hast  been  loved. 

2.  Have  been  loved. 

3.  Has    been  loved. 

3.  Have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect,  (or  Past  Perfect)  Tense. 

Sinpdar. 

Plm-al. 

1.  Had    been  loved. 

1.  Had  been  loved. 

2.  Hadst  been  loved. 

2.  Had  been  loved. 

3.  Had    been  loved. 

3.  Had  been  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

Singidar. 

Plural. 

I.  Shall  or  will  be  loved. 

1.  Shall  or  will  be  loved. 

2.  Shalt  or  wilt  be  loved. 

2.  Shall  or  will  be  loved. 

3.  Shall  or  will  be  loved. 

3.  Shall  or  will  be  loved. 

Future-perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Shall  or  will  have  been  loved.  1.  Shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 

2.  Shalt  or  wilt  have  been  loved.  2.  Shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 

3.  Shall  or  will  have  been  loved.  3.  Shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 

6* 


M  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  29. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  May        or  can  be  loved.  1.  May  or  can  be  loved. 

2.  Mayst  oj*  canst  be  loved.  2.  May  or  can  be  loved. 

3.  May        or  can  be  loved.  3.  May  or  can  be  loved. 

Imperfect,  (or  Past)  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Might,  &c.  be  loved.  1.  Mij^ht,  &,c.  be  loved. 

2.  Mightst,      be  loved.  2.  Might,         be  loved. 

3.  Might,         be  loved.  3.  Might,         be  loved. 

Perfect,  (or  Present  Perfect)  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  May    or  must  have  been  loved.  1.  May  o>- must  have  been  loved. 

2.  Mayst  or  must  have  been  loved.  2.  May  or  must  have  been  loved. 

3.  May     or  must  have  been  loved.  3.  May  or  must  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect,  (or  Past  Perfect)  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Might,  &c.  have  been  loved.  1.  Might,  &c.  have  been  loved. 

2.  Mightst,     have  been  loved.  2.  Might,         have  been  loved. 

3.  Might,        have  been  loved.  3.  Might,         have  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  PluraL 

1.  If  I       beloved  1.  //we     beloved. 

2.  //"thou  be  loved.  2.  //you  be  loved. 

3.  //he     beloved.  3.  //they  be  loved. 

Imperfect,  (or  Past)  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Were  I  loved,  or  If  I  were     1.  Were  we  loved,  or //"we were 

loved.  loved. 

2.  Wert  thou  loved,  or  If  thou    2.  Were  you  loved,  or  If  you 

wert  loved.  were  loved. 

3i.  Were  he  loved,  or  If  he  were    3.  Were  they  loved,  or  If  the? 
loved.  were  loved. 


5  29  ETYMOLOGY.  ft5 

Perfect,  (or  Present  Perfect)  Tense. 

Sinpilar.  Plural. 

1    //I  have       been  loved.  1.  //we    have  been  loved. 

2.  //"  thou  hast  been  loved.  2.  Jf  you  have  been  loved. 

3.  //he  has      been  loved.  3.  //they  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect,  (or  Past  Perfect)  Tense. 

Sing^dar.  Plural. 

l.//lhad  been  loved.  1.  //we  had    been  loved. 

2.  j/thou  hadst  been  loved.  2.  //"you  had  been  loved. 

3.  If  he    had     been  loved.  3.  If  they  had  been  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

Sin^Uar.  Plural. 

1.  //"I  shall       or  will  be  loved.  1.  If  we    shall  or  will  be  loved. 

2.  //"thou  shall  or  wilt  be  loved.  2.  //you  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

3.  If  he  shall     or  will  be  loved.  3.  If  they  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

Future-perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  been     1.  //"  we  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved.  loved. 

2.  //  tliou  shall  or  wilt  have  been     2.  If  you  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved.  loved. 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  been    3.  If  they  shall  or  will  have  been 

loved.  loved. 

IMPERATI"VE  MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Be  thou  loved-  2.  Be  ye  or  you  loved. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Present.  To  be  loved.  Perf.  To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  Being  loved.  Perf.  Loved. 

Cc;npou7id  perf.  Having  been  loved. 

^iCr  After  the  puiiil  is  expert  in  going  ovnr  Uic  tciiscs  of  tlie  verb,  as  given  In 
he  above  tables,  he  may  then  Ixi  exercised  in  using  one  auxiliary  at  a  lime.— 


59  ENGLISH    URAMMAR.  §  29 

EXERCISES    ON    THE    VERB    PASSIVE. 

They  are  loved  ;  we  were  loved  ;  thou  art  loved  ;  it 
is  loved  ;  she  was  loved  ;  he  has  been  loved  ;  you  have 
been  loved  ;  I  have  been  loved  ;  thou  hadstbeen  loved  ; 
we  shall  be  loved ;  thou  wilt  be  loved ;  they  will  be 
loved ;  I  shall  have  been  loved ;  you  will  have  been 
loved. 

He  can  be  loved ;  thou  mayst  be  loved  ;  she  must  be 
loved  ;  they  might  be  loved  ;  ye  would  be  loved  ;  they 
should  be  loved  ;  I  could  be  loved  ;  thou  mayst  have  been 
loved ;  it  may  have  been  loved  ;  you  might  have  been 
loved  ;  if  I  be  loved  ;*  thou  wert  loved  ;  we  be  loved  ; 
they  be  loved.  Be  thou  loved  ;  be  ye  loved ;  you  be 
loved.  To  be  loved ;  loved  ;  having  been  loved  ;  to 
have  been  loved  ;  being  loved. 

Promiscuous  Exercises  on  Verbs,  and  Cases  of  Nouns  and 
Pronouns. 

Tie  John's  shoes  ;  this  is  Jane's  bonnet ;  ask  mamma  ; 
he  has  learned  his  lesson ;  she  invited  him  ;  your  father 
may  commend  you  ;  he  was  baptized  ;  the  minister  bap- 
tized  him  ;  we  should  have  delivered  our  message  ;  papa 
will  reprove  us ;  divide  the  apples ;  the  captain  had  com- 
manded his  soldiers  to  pursue  the  enemy ;  Eliza  divert- 
ed her  brother ;  a  hunter  killed  a  hare  ;  were  I  loved ; 
were  we  good  we  should  be  happy  ;  James  did  write  ; 
they  are  reading ;  I  have  been  running  ;  I  did  run  ;  they 
do  come  ;  he  might  be  doing  something  ,  they  must  have 
been  travelling. 

Tlius,  Present  Potential,  I  may  love ;  Thou  mayest  love,  &c.    And  then  witJi 
the  next  auTiliary ;  I  can  love ;  Thou  canst  love ;  He  can  love.    Ami  then  with 
the  next;  I  r.mst  love;  Thou  must  love;  He  must  love,  &c.,  proceeding  in  Um 
sains  manner  with  the  auxiliaries  of  the  Imperfect.,  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect, 
*  A  Conjunction  is  frequently  to  be  understood  here. 


§  30,  31.  ETYMOLOGY.  57 

§  30.    OF  THE  PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Participle  is  a  part  of  the  verb  which 
contains  no  affirmation,  but  expresses  being,  doing 
or  suffering,  as  a  general  quahty  of  an  object,  and 
has  the  same  construction  as  the  adjective.  The 
Participles  are  three,  the  Present,  the  Perfect,  and 
the  Compound-Perfect. 

2.  The  present  participle  in  -t?i^  always  expresses  an  action,  or  the 
suffering  of  an  action,  or  the  being,  state,  or  condition  of  a  tiling  as 
conlimdng  and  progressive, 

3.  The  Present  participle  of  the  active  voice  has  an  active  signification ; 
as,  James  is  building  the  house.  In  many  of  these,  however,  it  has 
also  a  passive  signification ;  as,  the  house  was  building  when  the  wall 
fell. 

4.  The  Present  participle  passive  has  only  a  passive  signification, 
and  intimates  the  present  existence  of  an  act  as  completed,  but  never 
as  tn  progress.  Thus,  "The  arrangements  being  made,  be  is  now 
ready  to  proceed."  In  this  sentence,  "  the  arrangements,"  are  evidently 
considered  as  completed.  To  represent  them  as  in  progress,  we 
would  say  thus:  "While  the  arrangements  are  making,  his  superin- 
tendence is  indispensable" — using  the  participle  making  in  the  pas- 
sive sense. 

5.  The  Perfect  participle,  in  trans,  verbs,  has  either  an  active  or 
passive  signification;  as,  "He  has  concealed  a  dagger  under  his 
cloak  ;"  or,  "He  has  a  dagger  concealed  under  his  cloak." 

6.  The  Compound-perfect  participle  has  an  active  signification  only 
in  the  active  voice,  and  a  passive  signification  only  in  the  passive 
voice. 

7.  The  participle  in  -ing  is  often  used  as  a  verbal  noun,  having  the 
nominative  and  objective  cases,  but  not  the  possessive.  In  this  cha- 
racter, the  participle  of  a  trans,  verb  may  still  retain  the  government 
of  the  verb,  or  it  may  be  divested  of  it  by  inserting  the  preposition  of 
after  it,  in  which  case  an  article  or  possessive  pronoun  should  always 
precede  it.— See  Syntax,  §  64. 

§31.    OBSERVATIONS. 

It  has  lately  become  common  to  use  the  present  participle  passive  to 
express  the  suffering  of  an  action  as  continuitig,  instead  of  the  parti- 
ciple in  -ing  in  the  passive  sense ;  thus,  instead  of,  "  The  house  ia 


58  ENGLISH    GRAMMAH.  §  31. 

building,"  we  now  very  frequently  hear,  "The  house  is  being  builf." 
This  mode  of  expression,  besides  being  awkward,  is  incorrect,  and 
does  not  express  the  idea  intended.  This  will  be  obvious,  I  think, 
from  the  following  considerations. 

1.  The  expression,  "  is  being,"  is  equivalent  to,  "  is,"  and  expresses 
no  more  ;  just  as,  "is  loving,"  is  equivalent  to,  "  loves.^'  Hencp,  "  is 
being  built,"  is  precisely  equivalent  to  "  is  built." 

2.  "Bi«/t,"isa  perfect  participle;  and  therefore  cannot,  in  anj 
connexion,  express  an  action,  or  the  suffering  of  an  action,  nmo  in 
progress.  The  verb  to  be,  signifies  to  exist;  *^ being,"  therefore,  is 
equivalent  to  "  existing."  If  then  we  substitute  the  synonyme,  the 
nature  of  the  expression  will  be  obvious  ;  thus,  "  the  house  is  being 
built,"  is  in  other  words,  "  the  house  is  existing  built,"  or  more  simply 
as  before,  "  the  house  is  built ;"  plainly  importing  an  action  not  pro- 
gressing, but  now  existi7ig  in  a  finished  state, 

3.  If  the  expression  "is  being  built"  be  a  correct  form  of  the  present 
indicative  passive,  then  it  must  be  equally  correct  to  say  in  the  pre- 
sent perfect,  "has  been  beins  built ;"  in  the  pluperfect,  "had  been 
being  built ;"  in  the  present  infinitive,  "  to  be  being  built  ;"  in  the 
perfect  infinitive,  "  to  have  been  being  built ;"  and  in  the  present 
participle,  "  being  being  built ;"  which  all  will  admit  to  be  expressions 
as  incorrect  as  they  are  inelegant,  but  precisely  analogous  to  that 
which  now  begins  to  prevail. 

This  mode  of  expression  has  probably  arisen  from  assuming  that 
the  English  participle  in  -ing  corresponds  to  the  Latin  participle  in  ns, 
which  has  always  an  active  signification,  and  that  the  perfect  partici- 
ple in  English  corresponds  to  the  perfect  participle  in  Latin,  which, 
except  in  deponent  verbs,  is  always  passive.  But  since  it  is  obvious 
that  the  analogy  does  not  hold  between  the  two  languages  in  the  lat- 
ter case,  there  is  no  good  reason  why  it  should  hold  in  the  former. 
On  the  contrary,  as  the  perfect  participle  in  English  has  both  an  ac- 
tive and  passive  signification,  analogy  claims  an  equal  latitude  of 
mean  in  or  for  the  participle  in-i)i^;  and  this  claim  has  been  allowed 
by  the  best  writers  of  the  English  language.  The  present  participle 
active,  and  the  present  participle  passive,  are  not  counterparts  to  each 
other  in  signification ;  the  one  signifying  the  present  doing,  and  the 
other  the  present  suffering  of  an  action,  for  the  latter  always  intimates 
the  present  being  of  an  act,  not  in  progress,  but  completed.  'I'he 
proper  counterpart  to  the  participle  in  -ing  in  the  active  sense,  is  the 
same  participle  in  its  passive  sense,  or  some  equivalent  circumlao*- 
tion,  when  a  passive  sense  is  not  admitted. 


§31 


ETYMOLOGY.  59 


It  13  true  that  of  many  verbs,  the  participle  in  -ing  is  not  used  in  a 
passive  sense.  For  example,  we  would  not  say,  "  the  book  is  reading." 
It  would  be  equally  incorrect  to  say,  "  the  book  is  being  read."  Our 
not  using  the  former  expression  in  this  case,  and  in  others  of  a  similar 
nature,  is  owing  to  this,  that  custom  has  sanctioned  a  different  mode  of 
expressing  the  same  idea. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  VERB. 
^  19.  What  is  a  verb  ?     How  many  kinds  of  verbs  are  there.     Define 
a  transitive  verb — an  intransitive  verb.     Into  what  three  classes  may  all 
verbs  be  divided  ?    What  is  a  regular  verb  ? — an  irregular  ? — a  defective  7 
What  sort  of  a  distinction  is  active  and  passive  ?  Have  intransitive  verba 
any  distinction  of  voice  ?    How  are  some  intransitive  verbs  rendered 
transitive  ?    Are  transitive  verbs  ever  lised  in  an  intransitive  senae  7 
Give  an  example. 
§  20.  What  are  auxiliary   verbs?     Name  them.    What  kind  of 
a    verb  is  let  7— ought  7     What    does   shall    imply  ? — will  7 — may  7 
— can  7     Name  the  past  tenses  of  these  verbs.     Do  they  always  ex 
press  past  lime  ?     If  not,  how  is  the  time  expressed  by  them  to  be  as- 
certained ?     What  does  icill  express  in  the  first  person  ? — in  the  se- 
cond and  third  ?     What  does  shall  express  in  the  first  person  ? — in  the 
second  and  third  ? 

§21,22.  How  is  a  verb  inflected?  How  many  voices  are  there? 
Hoio  are  they  distinguished  7  What  is  mood  7  How  many  moods  are 
there  7  Define  the  indicative, — the  potential, — the  subjunctive, — the 
imperative, — the  infinitive.  What  tense  of  the  indicative  is  used  po- 
tentially ?  On  what  is  the  subjunctive  always  dependent  ?  By  what 
other  name  is  it  called  ?  In  what  tense  does  it  differ  from  the  indica- 
tive ?  What  person  has  the  imperative  mood  ?  Why  ?  What  is 
the  proper  character  of  the  infinitive  ? 

§  23.  What  is  meant  by  tense  7  How  tnany  tenses  are  there  ? 
J^Tame  them  ?  How  is  time  naturally  divided  ?  In  what  different 
states  do  the  tenses  represent  an  action  in  each  of  these  divisions  of 
time?  What  tenses  represent  the  act  as  incomplete  and  continuing? 
What  tenses  represent  it  as  completed?  Hoio  does  the  Present  tense 
represent  an  actioii  7 — the  Past  7 — the  Perfect  7 — the  Pluperfect  7 — the 
Future  7 — the  Future-perfect  7 

§  24.  How  many  distinct  forms  has  the  Present  tense?  Give  the 
forms  of  the  present  of  the  verb  "  to  love."  Distinguish  them  by 
names,  and  state  how  they  are  applied.  How  many  forms  are  there 
of  the  Imperfect  tense  ?  Give  examples,  and  distinguish  them  by 
names     How  is  the  indefinite  applied? — the  emphatic? — the  pro- 


60 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


§32. 


gressivc  or  definite? — How  many  forms  has  the  Perfect?  How  are 
they  applied  ?  In  what  difierent  ways  is  the  less  definite  form  ap 
phed  ?  Can  this  tense  be  used  to  express  an  act  completed  prior  to 
the  present,  as  yesterday,  last  week,  &c.  ?  Give  the  different  forms 
and  application  of  the  Pluperfect, — of  the  Future, — of  the  Future- 
perfect. 

§  25.  How  7nany  numbers  are  there  ?  Hoxo  many  persons  ?  What 
does  the  first  person  indicate  1 — the  second  ? — the  third  ?  Which  per- 
sons are  always  alike  ?  How  is  the  second  person  singular  formed  ? 
— the  third  person  singular? 

§  26.  Hoto  are  verbs  divided  in  respect  of  their  inflection  ?  What  is 
a  regidar  verb  1 — an  irregxdar  verb  ? — How  is  a  verb  conjugated  ?  In 
the  indicative  mood,  what  are  the  signs  of  the  Perfect? — of  the  Pin 
perfect? — of  the  Future? — of  the  Future-perfect?  In  the  Potential 
mood,  what  are  the  signs  of  the  Present? — of  the  Imperfect? — of  the 
Perfect  ?— of  the  Pluperfect? 

§  30.  What  is  a  Participle  ?  How  many  Participles  are  there  ? 
J^ame  thenu  What  does  the  participle  in  ing  express  ?  Has  it  ever 
a  passive  sense  ? — Give  an  example.  How  is  the  Present  participle 
passive  used  ? — the  Perfect  participle  active  ? — the  Perfect  ?  Describe 
the  use  of  the  Present  participle  as  a  verbal  noun. 


§  32.  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

1.  An  Irregular  verb  is  one  that  does  not  form  both 
its  imperfect  tense  and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed 
to  the  present ;  as, 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Abide 

abode 

abode 

Am 

was 

been 

Arise 

arose 

arisen 

Awake 

awoke  i 

R* 

awaked 

Bake 

baked 

baken  r 

Bear,  to  bring  forth 

bare  or 

bore 

bom 

Bear,  to  carry 

bore  or 

bare 

borne 

Beat 

beat 

beaten  or  beat 

Begin 

began 

begun 

Bend 

bent  K 

bent  R 

*  Those  verbB  which  arc  conjugated  regularly  as  well  aa  irregularly,  are  markad 
with  an  R. 


$  32. 

ETYMOLOGY 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Bereave 

bereft  r 

bereft  r 

Beseech 

besought 

besought 

Bid 

bade,  bid 

bidden 

Bind  un- 

bound 

bound 

Bite 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

Bleed 

bled 

bled 

Blow 

blew 

blown 

Break 

broke,  brake 

broken 

Breed 

bred 

bred 

Bring 

brought 

brought 

Build  re- 

built,  R 

built,  R 

Burst 

burst 

burst 

Buy 

bought 

bought 

Cast 

cast 

cast 

Catch 

caught  R 

caught  R 

Chide 

chid 

chidden,  chid 

Choose 

chose 

chosen 

Cleave,  to  adhere 

clave  R 

cleaved 

Cleave,  to  split 

clove  or  cleft 

cloven  or  cleft 

Cling 

clung 

clung 

Clotlie 

clothed 

clad  R 

Come  be- 

came 

come 

Cost 

cost 

cost 

Crow 

crew  R 

crowed 

Creep 

crept 

crept 

Cut 

cut 

cut 

Dare,  to  venture 

durst 

dared 

Dare,  to  cimllenge  is 

R  dared 

dared 

Deal 

dealt  R 

dealt  R 

Dig 

dug  R 

dug  R 

Do  mis-  un- 

did 

done 

Draw 

drew 

drawn 

Drive 

drove 

driven 

Drink 

drank 

drunk 

Dwell 

dwelt  R 

dwelt  R 

Eat 

ate 

eaten 

Fall  be- 

fell 

fallen 

Feed 

fed 

fed 

Feel 

felt 

felt 

Fight 

fought 

fought 

61 


62 


ENGLISH    OBAMMAR. 


§  3'?. 


Present, 

Iinperf''ci. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Find 

tbund 

found 

Flee 

fled 

fled 

Fling 

flung 

flung 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Forbear 

forbore 

forborn 

Forget 

forgot 

forgotten,  forgot 

Forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen 

Get  be-  for- 

gat  or  got 

gotten  or  got 

Gild 

gilt  R 

gilt  R 

Gird  be-  en- 

girt  R 

girtR 

Give /w-  mis- 

gave 

given 

Go 

went 

gone 

Grave  en-  R 

graved 

graven 

Grind 

ground 

ground 

Grow 

grew 

grown 

Have 

had 

had 

Hang 

hung 

hung* 

Hear 

heard 

heard 

Heave 

hove  R 

hovcn  R 

Hewr 

hewed 

hewn  R 

Hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

Hit 

hit 

hit 

Hold  be-  witk- 

held 

held  or  holden 

Hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

Keep 

kept 

kept 

Knit 

knitR 

knit  or  knitted 

Know 

knew 

known 

Lade 

laded 

laden 

Lay 

laid 

laid 

Lead  mis- 

led 

led 

Leave 

left 

left 

Lend 

lent 

lent 

Let 

let 

let 

Lie,  to  lie  down 

lay 

lain  or  hen 

Light 

lighted  or  lit 

lighted  or  lit 

Load 

loaded 

laden  r 

*  Hang;  to  take  away  Hfe  by  hanging.  Is    regular;  as,  Tbe  robber  was  Aip^ 
td,  but  the  gown  was  hung  up. 


^6'Z. 

ETYMOLOGjr. 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Lose 

lost 

lost 

Make 

made 

made 

Mean 

meant 

meant 

Meet 

met 

met 

Mow 

mowed 

mown  B 

Pay  re- 

paid 

paid 

Put 

put 

put 

auit 

quit  R 

quit 

Read 

read 

read 

Rend 

rent 

rent 

Rid 

rid 

rid 

Ride 

rode 

rode,  ridden* 

Ring 

rang  or  rung 

rung 

Rise  a- 

rose 

risen 

Rive 

rived 

riven 

Rot 

rotted 

rotten  r 

Run 

ran 

run 

Saw 

sawed 

sawn  B 

Say 

said 

said 

See 

saw 

seen 

Seek 

sought 

sought 

Sell 

sold 

sold 

Send 

sent 

sent 

Set  be- 

set 

set 

Shake 

shook 

shaken 

Shape  mis- 

shaped 

shapen  r 

Shave 

shaved 

shaven  r 

Shear 

shore  r 

shorn 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shine 

shone  r 

shone  r 

Showf 

showed 

shown 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

Shrink 

shrank  or  shrunk 

shrunk 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Sing 

sang  or  sung 

sung 

Sink 

sank  or  sunk 

sunk 

6S 


*  Ridden,  is  nearly  obsolete. 

t  Shew,  shewed,  sA«on,— pronounced  show,  «cc.  See  foot  of  next  page. 


94 


ENGLISH   ORAMMAR. 


§  32. 


Present 

IinperfecL 

Perfect  Participle. 

Sit 

sat 

sat  or  sittcn* 

Slay 

slew 

slain 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Slide 

slid 

slidden 

Sling 

slang,  slung 

slung 

SUnk 

slank,  slunk 

slunk 

Slit 

slit  R 

slit  or  slitted 

Smite 

smote 

smitten 

Sow 

sowed 

sown  R 

Speak  be- 

spoke  or  spake 

spoken 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

Spend  7)113* 

spent 

spent 

Spill 

spilt  R 

spilt  R 

Spin 

span,  spun 

span 

Spit  6e- 

spat,  spit 

spit  or  spitten 

Split 

split  R 

split  R 

Spread  de- 

spread 

spread 

Spring 

sprang  or  sprung 

sprung 

Stand  %oUh-  &c. 

stood 

stood 

Steal 

stole 

stolen 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

Sting 

stung 

stung 

Stride  be- 

strode  or  strid 

stridden 

Strike 

struck 

struck,  stricken 

String 

strung 

strung 

Strive 

strove 

striven 

Strewt  be- 

strewed 

strewed  or 

Strow  be- 

strewed 

strown,  strewed 

Swear 

swore,  sware 

sworn 

Sweat 

sweat 

sweat 

Sweep 

swept 

swept 

Swell 

swelled 

swollen  R 

Swim 

swam  or  swum 

swum 

Swing 

swang  or  swung 

swung 

Take  be-  &c. 

took 

taken 

Teach  mis-  re- 

taught 

taught 

Tear  un- 

tore  or  tare 

torn 

*  Sitten  and  spitten  are  nearly  obsolete,  though  preferable  to  sat  and  spiL 
t  Strex  and  shew  are  now  giving  way  to  strov  and  show,  as  they  are  i 
nouuced. 


5  32. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Present 

Imperfeci. 

Perfect  Participle, 

Tell 

told 

told 

Think  be- 

thought 

thought 

Thrive 

throve 

thriven 

Throw 

threw 

thrown 

Thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

Tread 

trod 

trodden 

Wax 

waxed 

waxen  t^ 

Wear 

wore 

worn 

Weave 

wove 

woven 

Weep 

wept 

wept 

W"in 

won 

won 

Wind 

wound  R 

wound 

Work 

wrought  R 

wrought,  worked 

Wring 

wrung  R 

wrung 

Write 

wrote 

written 

66 


Imperfect. 
should 
would 
wist 

wot 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

2.  Defective  verbs  are  those  which  want  some 
of  their  moods  and  tenses.  Tliey  are  also  irregular, 
and  chiefly  auxiliary :  these  are, 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perf.  Part.  Present.     Imperfect.     Perf.  Part. 

Can  could  Shall 

May  might Will 

Must  Wis 

Ought         Wit  or 

auoth        quoth  Wot 

Obs.  Oi(g-/ii  was  originally  the  past  tense  of  theverb  <o  oioe.  It  is 
now  used  to  signify  present  duty,  as  must  is  used  to  signify  present 
obligation  or  necessity  ;  as,  "  Speaking  things  which  they  ought  not" 
When  applied  to  what  is  past,  the  past  time  is  noted  by  the  preterite 
of  the  subsequent  verb;  thus,  "These  things  ought  ye  to  have  done." 
Will,  as  an  auxiliary,  is  inflexible  in  the  tliird  person  singular;  as,  he 
will  go.  The  second  person  singular  has  wilt.  It  is  sometimes  used 
as  a  principal  verb  ;  as,  he  wills  to  go.  Wis,  wist,  which  signifies  "  to 
think,"  or  "  to  imagine,"  is  now  obsolete.  Wit  is  now  confined  to  the 
phrase  to  toil,  or  namely. 

'^  IMPERSONAL  VERBS, 

3.  Impersonal  verbs  are  those  which  assert  the 

7* 


66  ENGLISH     GRAJTMAR.  ^  'A3. 

existence  of  some  action  or  state,  but  refer  it  to  no 
particular  subject.  They  are  preceded  by  the  pro- 
noun it,  and  are  always  in  the  third  ])erson  singu- 
lar. To  this  head  may  be  referred  such  expressions 
as,  It  hails,  it  snows,  it  rains,  it  thunders,  it  be- 
hoveth,  it  irketh ;  and  perhaps  also,  methinks,  me- 
thoiight,  Tneseems,  meseemed,  in  which,  instead  of 
it,  the  first  personal  pronoun  in  the  objective  case, 
me,  is  prefixed  to  the  third  person  singular  of  tlie 
verb. 

UUESTIONS    ON    IRREGULAR    DFFECTIVE    AND    IMPERSONAL 
VERBS. 

What  is  an  irregular  verb  ?  Are  there  any  verbs  which  are  both 
regular  and  irregular?  Give  an  example.  What  are  defective  verbs  ? 
Are  they  chiefly  regular  or  irregular  ?  Name  the  principal  defective 
verbs.  What  was  ought  originally  ?  How  is  it  now  used  ?  What 
are  impersonal  verbs  ?  In  what  person  are  they  ahcnys  used  ?  Give 
an  example.     What  kind  of  a  verb  is  methinks,  methought,  &c  ? 

EXERCISES    ON    THE    IRREGULAR    VERBS. 

Name  the  Imperfect  tense  and  Perfect  participle  of — 
Take,  drive,  creep,  begin,  abide,  buy,  bring,  arise,  catch, 
bereave,  am,  burst,  draw,  drink,  fly,  flee,  fall,  get,  give, 
go,  feel,  forsake,  grow,  have,  hear,  hide,  keep,  know,  lose, 
pay,  ride,  ring,  shake,  run,  seek,  sell,  see,  sit,  slay,  slide, 
smite,  speak,  stand,  tell,  win,  write,  weave,  tear. 

§  33.     VI.  OF  ADVERBS. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  joined  to  a  verb,  an  ad- 
jective, or  another  adverb,  to  modify  or  denote  some 
circumstance  respecting  it ;  as,  Ann  speaks  distinct- 
ly ;  she  is  remarkably  diligent,  and  reads  very  cor- 
rectly. 


^  34.  '  ETYMOLOGY.  67 

Adverbs  have  been  divided  into  various  classes,  according  to  their 
signification.     The  chief  of  these  are  such  as  denote, 

1.  duAUTY  or  Manner  simply;  as,  well,  ill,  bravely,  prudently 
softly;  with  innumerable  others,  formed  from  adjectives  by  adding 
/;/,  or  clianging  le  into  ly  ;  thus,  tame,  tamely  ;  sensible,  sensibly,  Sec. 

2.  Place  ;  as,  here,  there,  where, — hitlicr,  thither,  whither. — Hence, 
thence,  whence, — somewhere,  nowhere,  whithersoever,  Sac. — separate- 
ly, asunder. 

3.  Time;  as,  now,  then,  when  ;  soon,  often,  seldom;  ever,  never, 
while,  whilst ;  already,  still,  yet,  since,  ago ;  once,  twice,  tlirice ; 
again,  hereafter,  hitherto ;  yesterday,  to-day,  to-morrow  ;  lately,  pre- 
sently, by  and  bye,  &c. 

4.  Direction  ;  as,  upward,  downward,  backward,  forward,  hea- 
venward, homeward,  hitherward,  thitherward,  whitherward,  &c 

5.  Negation  ;  as,  nay,  no,  not,  nowise. 

6.  Affirmation  ;  as,  verily,  truly,  undoubtedly,  yea,  yes,  cer- 
tainly, indeed,  doubtless,  &c. 

7.  Uncertainty;  a?,  perhaps,  peradvcnture,  perchance. 

8.  Interrogation;  as,  how,  why,  when,  wherefore,  where,  whi- 
ther, whence, 

,9.  Comparison;  as,  more,  most,  less,  least ;  well,  better,  best ;  as, 
so,  thus,  very,  ralh.;r,  exceedingly,  extremely,  almost,  nearly. 

10.  Q.0ANTITY  ;  as,  mush,  little,  enough,  sufficiently. 

11.  Nomber;  as,  first,  secondly,  thirdly,  &.e.  formed  from  the  or- 
dinal numeral  adjective,  (§  13,  Obs.  9,)  by  adding  ly. 

§  34.     OBSERVATIONS  OX  ADVERBS. 

1.  The  cliirf  use  of  adverbs  is  to  shorten  discourse,  by  expressing 
in  one  word  what  would  otherwise  require  two  or  more;  as,  here, 
for  "  in  this  place  ;"  nobly,  for  •'  in  a  noble  manner,"  &c. 

2.  Adverbs  of  quality,  and  a  few  others,  admit  of  comparison  like 
adjectives  ;  as,  soon,  sooner,  soonest ;  nobly,  more  nobly,  most  no- 
bly.- A  few  are  compared  irregularly;  as,  well,  better,  best;  badly, 
or  ill,  worse,  worst, 

3.  Some  words  become  adverljs  by  prefixins  a,  which  signifies  at, 
or  on  ;  as,  abed,  ashore,  afloat,  aground,  apart. 

4.  In  comparisons,  the  antecedents  a5  and  so  are  visually  reckoned 
adverbs,  because  they  modify  an  adjective  or  another  adverb  ;  the  cor- 
responding as  and  so  arc  conjunctions;   thus.  It  is  as  high  as  Heaven. 

5.  The  compounds  of   here,   there,   where;    and   hither,   thither. 


68  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  ^  84. 

whither,  are  all  adverhs ;  except  therefore  and  wherefore,  which  are 
Bometiines  conjunctions. 

6.  Many  words  are  used  sometimes  as  adverbs,  and  sometimes  as 
other  parts  of  speech  ;  thus, 

Muck  is  used,  1.  As  an  adverb  ;  as.  It  is  much  better  to  give  than  to 
to  receive. 

• 2.  As  an  adjective ;   as,  In  much  wisdom  is  viuch 

grief. 

3.  As  a  noun ;  as,  where  mtich  is  given  much  is  re- 
quired. 

Yesterday  is  used,  1.  As  an  adverb ;  as,  He  came  yesterday. 

2.  As  a  noun  ;  as.  Yesterday  is  past. 

Before  is  used,  1.  As  an  adverb;  as.  He  came  before  the  door  was 
opened. 

2.  As  a  preposition  ;  as,  He  stood  before  the  door. 

7.  Circumstances  of  time,  place,  manner.  Sec.  are  often  expressed 
by  two  or  more  words  constituting  an  adverbial  phrase ;  as,  in  short, 
in  fine,  in  general,  at  most,  at  least,  at  length,  not  at  all,  by  no  means, 
in  vain,  in  order,  long  ago,  by  and  bye,  to  and  fro,  &c.  which,  taken 
together,  may  be  parsed  as  adverbs,  or  by  supplying  the  ellipsis  ;  thus. 
in  a  short  space  ;  in  a  general  way,  &c. 

Exercises  on  Adverbs,  Irregular  Verbs,  &c. 

Peter  wept  bitterly.  He  is  here  now.  She  went  away 
yesterday.  They  came  to-day.  They  will  perhaps  buy 
some  to-morrow.  Ye  shall  know  hereafter.  She  sung 
sweetly.  Cats  soon  learn  to  catch  mice.  Mary  rose  up 
hastily.  They  that  have  enough  may  soundly  sleep, 
Cain  wickedly  slew  his  brother.  I  saw  him  long  ago.  He 
is  a  very  good  man.  Sooner  or  later  all  must  die.  You 
read  too  little.  They  talk  too  nnich.  James  acted  wise- 
ly. How  many  lines  can  you  repeat?  You  ran  hastily. 
He  speaks  fluently.  Then  were  they  glad.  He  fell  fast 
asleep.  She  should  not  hold  her  head  awry.  The  ship 
was  driven  ashore.  No,  indeed.  They  are  all  alike. 
Let  him  that  is  athirst  drink  freely.  The  oftener  you  read 
with  attention,  the  more  you  will  improve. 


^35. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


60 


§  35.  VII.  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 
A  Preposition  is  a  word  which  expresses  the 
relation  in  which  a  substantive  (noun  or  pronoun) 
stands  to  a  verb,  or  to  another  substantive  in  the 
same  sentence ;  as,  "  Before  honour  is  humiUty ;" 
They  speak  concerning  virtue. 

Words  of  this  class  are  called  prepositions,  because  they  are  usual 
Iv  placed  before  the  nouns  or  pronouns  to  which  they  refer. 

A  LIST  OP  PREPOSITIONS. 


To  be  got  accurately  by  heart. 

About 

Before 

From 

Through 

Above 

Behind 

In 

Throughout 

Acco»-ding  to 

Below 

Into 

Till 

Across 

Beneath 

Instead  of 

To 

After 

Beside 

Near 

Touching 

Against 

Besides 

Nigh 

Towards 

Along 

Between 

Of 

Under 

Amid      ) 

Betwixt 

Off 

Underneath 

Amidst  ) 

Beyond 

On 

Unto 

Among     ) 

By 

Over 

Up 

Amongst  ) 

Concerning 

Out  of 

Upon 

Around 

Down 

Past 

With 

Aslant 

During 

Regarding 

Within 

At 

Except 

Respecting 

Without 

Athwart 

Excepting 

Round 

Bating 

For 

Since 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  PREPOSITIONS. 

1.  Every  preposition  requires  an  objective  case  after  it, — When  a 
preposition  does  not  govern  an  objective  case,  it  becomes  an  adterb  ; 
a?,  He  rides  about.  But  in  such  phrases  as,  cast  up,  hold  out,  fall  on, 
the  words  \ip,  out,  on,  must  be  considered  as  apart  of  the  verbs,  rather 
than  as  prepositions  or  adverbs. 

2.  Certain  words  are  used  sometimes  as  prepositions,  and  some- 
times as  adverbs  j  as,  ((//,  \mtil,  after,  before,  &c. 


70  KNGLISH    OEAMMAK.  §  3G. 

3.  Some  words  in  the  above  list  of  prepositions  might,  perhaps  with- 
out improprietj',  be  classed  with  adverbs  ;  as,  near,  nigh,  &.C.,  and  the 
objective  case  which  follows  them,  be  governed  by  a  preposition  under- 
stood ;  as,  near  the  house,  i.  e.  near  to  the  house. — "  Off  the  table," 
i.  e.  off  from  the  table. 

4.  Inseparable  Prepositions  are  certain  particles  never  found  by  them- 
selves, but  always  in  composition  with  another  word.  Those  purely 
English  are,  a,  be,  fore,  mis,  un. 

EXERCISES  CONTAINING  PREPOSITIONS. 
He  went  to  town.  His  father  resides  in  the  country. 
He  gave  part  of  his  dinner  to  a  poor  man  in  the  street. 
They  divided  the  inheritance  among  them.  All  rivers  flow 
into  the  ocean.  He  was  travelling  towards  Rome  when 
they  met  him  at  Milan,  without  a  single  attendant.  The 
coach  was  upset  between  Bristol  and  London  on  Wednes- 
day last 

§  36.     Vni.     CONJUNCTIONS. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  which  joins  words  and 
sentences  together ;  as,  You  and  I  must  study,  bui 
he  may  go  ajid  play.     Two  and  two  make  four. 

A  LIST  OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  Copulative — Also,  and,  because,  both,  for,  if, 
since,  that,  then,  therefore,  wherefore. 

2.  Disjunctive — Although,  as,  as  well  as,  but, 
either,  except,  lest,  neither,  nor,  notwithstanding,  or, 
provided,  so,  than,  though,  unless,  whether,  yet,  still. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  list  that  the  same  word  varies  in  its 
character  according  to  its  application :  e.  g.  both,  either,  neither,  whether, 
are  sometimes  adjective  pronouns  and  sometimes  conjunctions ;  that 
is  sometimes  an  adjective  pronoun,  sometimes  a  relative  pronoun, 
(§  18,  3,  obs.  2,)  as  well  as  a  conjunction  j  for,  save,  except,  are  some- 


^  37,  38.  ETYMOLOGY.  71 

times  prepositions ;  since  and  but  are  sometimes  conjunctions,  some* 
times  prepositions,  and  sometimes  adverbs;  thus,  "since  (conj.)  we 
must  part,  let  us  do  it  peaceably  ; "  "I  have  not  seen  him  since  (prep.) 
that  time;"  "  Our  friendship  commenced  long  «7ice"  (adv.) ;  "He  is 
poor  but  honest"  (conj.) ;  "  All  but  one  "  (prep.) ;  "He  has  but  just 
enough,"  (adv.) 

§  37.    IX.     OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  which  expresses  some 
emotion  of  the  speaker ;  as,  Oh  !  what  a  sight  is 
here  !      Well  done  ! 

A  LIST  OF  INTERJECTIONS. 
Adieu  !   ah !    alas  !    alack  !  away  !  aha !   begone ! 
fiark !    ho!    ha!    he!   hail!    halloo!   hum!    hush! 
huzza !    hist !    hey-dey  !    lo  !   O  !    Oh  !   O  strange  ! 
O  brave !  pshaw  !  see  !  well-a-day,  «fcc. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  INTERJECTIONS. 

1.  Many  words  denominated  inteijections,  are  in  fact  nouns  or  verbs, 
employed  in  the  rapidity  of  thouj^ht  and  expression,  occasioned  by 
strong  emotion,  to  denote  w  liat  would  otherwise  require  more  words 
to  express ;  as  Adieu  !  for  "  I  commend  you  to  God  ;  "  Strange  .'  for 
"tliat  is  strange;"  Welcome!  for  "you  are  welcome;"  and  hence 
any  word  or  phrase  may  become  an  interjection,  or  be  used  as  such, 
when  it  is  expressed  with  emotion,  and  in  an  unconnected  manner; 
aF,  "What!  Ungrateful  creature!  Shocking! 

2,  0  is  used  to  express  wishing  or  exclamation,  and  should  be  pre- 
fixed only  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  in  a  direct  address  ;  as,  "  O  virtue! 
How  amiable  thou  art,"  Oh  !  is  used  detached  from  the  word,  with  a 
point  of  exclamation  after  it.  It  implies  an  emotion  of  pain,  sorrow,  or 
surprize  ;  as,  "  Oh  .*  what  a  siglit  is  here," 

§38.  ON  PARSING. 
Parsing  is  the  resolving  of  a  sentence  into  its 
elements  or  parts  of  speech. 

Accuracy  and  expertness  in  this  exercise  is  an  important  acquisition. 


72  IJKGLISn    GRA5IMAK,  §  'AH. 

and  cannot  be  fully  acquired  without  a  knowledge  of  the  ruka  of  syn- 
tax. At  tlic  same  time,  in  order  to  study  the  niles  of  syntax  with  ad- 
vantage, and  especially  to  be  able  readily  to  correct  the  exercises  in 
false  syntax,  under  each  rule,  considerable  proficiency  in  parsing  is 
necessary.  The  pupil  must  be  able  at  once  to  distinguish  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  spcccii  from  each  other,  and  to  tell  the  difTurcnt  cases 
moods,  tenses,  &c.  in  which  a  word  is  found,  and  to  change  it  readily 
into  any  other  that  may  be  required. 

In  proceeding  to  parse  a  sentence  it  is  necessary  for  the  pupil  in  the 
first  place  to  vndcrstandit.  "When  he  understands  a  sentence,  and 
also  the  definition  of  the  different  parts  of  spcpch  given  in  the  gram- 
mar, he  will  not  find  much  difBculty  in  ascertaining  to  which  of  them 
each  word  belongs  ;  i.  e.  which  of"  the  words  are  "  names  of  tilings," 
or  nouns ;  which  "  express  the  quality  of  things,"  or,  "  affirm  any  thing 
concerning  them,"  that  is  to  say,  which  words  arc  adjectives,  and 
which  are  verbs.  This  method  will  exercise  the  discriminuting  pow- 
ers  of  the  pupil  better,  engage  his  attention  much  more,  and  on  trial 
be  found  mach  more  easy  and  certain,  than  that  of  consulting  his  dic- 
tionary on  every  occasion — a  plan  always  laborious,  often  unsatisfac- 
tory, and  which,  instead  of  leading  bin-,  to  exercise  his  own  powers, 
and  depend  on  liis  own  resources,  will  lead  him  to  habits  of  slavish 
dependence  on  the  authority  of  others. 

The  following  Genei-(d  principles  should  be  remembered,  and  stea- 
dily kept  in  view  in  parsing  every  sentence,  viz : 

1.  Every  adjective  expresses  the  quality  of  some 
noun  or  pronoun  expressed  or  understood. 

2.  The  subject  of  a  verb,  i.  e.  the  thing  spoken 
of,  is  always  in  the  nominativCj  and  is  said  to  be  the 
"  nominative  to  the  verb." 

3.  Every  noun  or  pronoun,  in  the  nominative  case, 
is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  expressed  or  understood,  i.  e. 
it  is  that  of  which  the  verb  afiirnis.  To  this  there 
are  a  few  exceptions. 

4.  Every  verb  in  the  indicative,  potential,  or 
subjunctive  mood  has  a  nominative  or  subject  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  i.  e.  it  has  something  of  which 
it  affirms. 


§  39.  ETYMOLoar.  73 

5.  Every  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  and 
every  preposition,  governs  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the 
objective  case ;  and  every  objective  case  is  governed 
by  an  active  transitive  verb,  or  preposition. 

6.  Every  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood  is  governed 
by  a  verb  or  adjective.  Sometimes  by  a  noun  ;  and 
sometimes  it  stands  after  the  conjunction,  than  or  as. 
See  §  67. 

§  39.     SPECIMENS  OF  PARSING.* 
"  Truth  and  candor  possess  a  powerful  charm." 

Previous  to  parsing  this  sentence,  it  may  be  analyzed  to  the  young 
pupil  by  such  questions  as  the  follotving,  viz:  What  is  spoken  of  in 
tliis  sentence  ?  Truth  and  candor.  What  is  said  of  them  ?  They 
possess  somctliing.  What  do  they  possess  ?  A  charm.  What  sort 
of  a  charm  do  they  possess  ?  A  powerful  charm.  The  sentence  bo- 
ing  understood,  may  be  par.-ed  briefly  thus  : 

''  Truth,"  A  noun,  neuter,  singular,  the  nominative. 

"And,"  A  conjunction,  connecting  "truth"  with 
"  candor." 

'"' Candor,"  A  noun,  neuter,  singular,  the  nomina- 
tive. 

"Possess,"  A  verb  transitive,  present,  indicative,  ac- 
tive,— third  person,  plural. 

"  A,"  The  indefinite  article. 

"  Powerful,"  An  adjective,  positive  degree,  quali- 
fying "  charm,"  compared  by  more  and 
most  J  as,  more  powerful,  most  powerful. 

*  la  parsing,  the  pupil  should  be  required  to  state  every  thing  belonging 
to  the  etymology  of  each  word  »ri  as  few  uords  as  possible,  and  without 
waiting  to  have  every  thing  drawn  from  him  by  questions  from  his  teacher , 
this  will  save  much  time  and  unnecessary  labor.  It  will  also  contribute 
much  to  order  and  piecision,  to  have  every  thing  respecting  each  part  of 
speech  expressed  always  in  the  same  order  and  in  the  same  language.  Th* 
following  specimens  are  given  as  an  example 

8 


74  ENGLISH   CRAiM.n.VU.  §  39 

"Charm,"  a  noun,  neuter,  singular,  the  objective. 

JVo/c. — Ilwill  alsi)  bi-  a  profitable  exercise  to  rc^nirc  a  reason  for  every  thing 
stated  ill  [larsiiig  .i  word,  as  for  example,  Why  do  yoii  say  that "  Truth"  id  a  noun  t 
(-•i  neuter  ? — siii|^)ilar  7 — the  nominative  1  To  whicli  quctstiniis  it  may  he  answered, 
liccauise  it  is  the  name  of  a  thing — is  without  sex — denotes  but  one,  and  (together 
with  candor)  is  tlic  subject  or  nominative  of  the  verb  "  possess ;"  or,  is  the 
thing  spoken  of.  Sec  note  ^  12.  This  cxerci.sc  should  be  continued  till  the  pu- 
pil is  abli-  to  answer  all  such  questions  on  any  of  the  parts  uf  speech  promptly 
and  intelligently. 

All  the  parts  of  speech  are  contained  in  tlic  fol- 
lowinir  stanza.  The  words  in  the  parentheses  may 
be  omitted  till  the  pupil  has  got  the  rules  of  Syntax. 

O  how  stupendous  was  the  power 
That  raised  me  with  a  word ; 

And  every  day,  and  every  hour, 
I  lean  upon  the  Lord. 

O,  an  intL-rjoction — /jow,  an  adverb — .itupeinloi's,  an  adjective,  in 
the  positive  degree,  compared  by  more  and  most ;  as  stupendotis, 
more  stupendous,  most  stupendous, — tons,  a  verb  iiitr,  third  person 
singular,  impert'ect,  indicative,  (agreeing  with  its  nominative  poxcet 
here  put  after  it) — the,  an  article,  the  definite, — power,  a  noun,  neuter, 
singular,  the  nominative, —  Tliat,  a  relative  pronoun,  neuter,  singular, 
the  nominative,  here  used  (or  which;  its  antecedent  is  po«c«i- — raised, 
a  verb,  trans,  imperf.,  indie,  nctivo,  third  person,  sinenlar,  (agreeing 
with  its  nominative  Ihal) — me,  the  first  personal  pronoun,  masculine, 
or  feminize,  singular,  the  objective,  (governed  by  raised) — icii.'i,  a  pre- 
nosilion — a,  an  article,  the  indefinite — ivord,  a  noun,  neuter,  singular, 
the  objective  (governed  hy  xnilh) — .ind,  a  conjimction — ei>€ri/,  a  dis- 
tributive pronoun — day,  a  noun,  neuter,  singular,  the  objective,  (be- 
cause the  proposition  through  or  during,  is  understood,  or,  obj 
restrictive  §  50.)-  hortr,  a  noun,  neuter,  singular,  the  objective  (because 
day  was  in  it,  and  conjunctions  couple  the  same  cases  of  nouns,  &c.) 
/,  the  first  personal  pronoun,  masculine,  or  feminine,  singular,  the  no- 
minative— lean,  a  verb  intr.,  first  person  singular,  present,  indica- 
tive— upon,  a  preposition — the,  an  article,  the  definite — Lord^  a  noun, 
masculine,  singular,  the  objective,  (govemed  by  up<m.) 


§  40.  ETYMOLOGY.  75 

§  40.     EXERCISES  IN  PARSING.* 

Rule  1.  Two  or  more  adjectives  following  each  other,  cither  with  or 
without  a  conjunction,  qiialify  the  same  word;  as, 

A  mse  and  faithful  servant  will  always  study  his  mas- 
ter's interest.  A  dismal,  dense,  and  portentous  cloud 
overhangs  the  city.  A  steady,  sweet,  and  cheerful  tem- 
per affords  great  delight  to  its  possessoi.  He  has  bought 
a  fine  new  coat.  A  sober  and  virtuous  course  of  conduct 
generally  leads  to  happiness.  Virtuous  youth  brings  forth 
accomplished  and  flourishing  manhood.  She  had  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  regular  and  polite  education. 

Rule  2.  When  an  adjective  precedes  two  7ioitns,  it  generally  quali- 
fies them  both :  as. 

They  waited  for  a  ft  time  and  place.  I  am  delighted 
with  the  sight  of  green  woods  and  fields.  He  displayed 
great  prudence  and  moderation.  He  was  a  man  ot"  great 
wisdom  and  moderation.  Guard  against  rash  temper  and 
conduct.  They  shewed  sincere  respect  and  esteem  for 
their  friends. 

Rule  3.  When  an  adjective  cmnes  after  a  verb  inlrans. ,  it  generally 
qualifies  the  nominative  of  that  verb ;  as, 

John  is  irise.  They  were  temperate.  The  sky  is  very 
clear.  These  rivers  are  deep  and  rapid.  The  apples  will 
soon  be  ripe.  VVe  have  been  attentive  to  our  lessons. 
These  mountains  are  very  high.  The  sea  is  tempestuous. 
Our  friends  should  be  dear  to  us.  His  behaviour  was  en- 
tirely inconsistent.  The  Supreme  being  is  wise  and  good. 
Their  pictures  and  books  are  valuable.  John's  schemes 
were  absurd. 

Rule  4.  Whatever  icords  the  verb  to  be  serves  to  unite  referring  to 
the  same  thing,  nmst  be  of  the  same  case ;  §  61,  as, 

Alexander  is  a  student.  Mary  is  a  beautiful  painter. 
Hope  is  the  balm  of  life.  Content  is  a  great  blessing, 
envy  a  great  curse.  Knowledge  is  power.  His  meat  was 
locusts  and  wild  honey.     He  was  the  life  of  the  company. 

*  The  rules  in  this  section  are  not  intended  to  be  committed  to  memory,  but 
to  be  used  as  directions  to  tlic  beginner  in  parsing  the  exercises  under  them. 


76  ENOLISn    OKAJIMAR.  §  40. 

She  will  be  tlie  delight  of  her  friends.  Milton  in  the  prince 
of  English  poets.  Shakspeare  was  a  man  of  unbounded 
genius.  Johnson  was  a  powerful  writer.  Contentment  is 
great  gain.  He  might  be  a  most  happy  man.  I  under- 
stood it  to  be  him.  I  took  it  to  be  them.  I  supposed  it  to 
have  been  them. — They  imagined  it  to  be  me. 

JVoic— It  is  necessary  to  the  application  of  this  rule,  that  the  words  connected 
refer  to  the  same  thing.  This  connexion  is  often  made  by  other  words  than  the 
verb  to  be.— Sec  $  Gl,  Rem  1. 

Rule  5.  J^oims  and  pronouns  succeeding  each  other,  and  denoting  the 
same  object,  are  said  to  be  in  apposition,  and  always  agree  in  case  ;  as, 

Alexander  the  coppersmith,  was  not  a  friend  to  the  Apos- 
tle Paul.  Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  is  our  greatest  friend. 
Thomson,  the  author  of  the  Seasons,  is  a  delightful  poet. 
Temperance,  the  best  preserver  of  health,  should  be  the 
study  of  all  men.  He  greatly  displeased  his  friand  Cato. 
We  received  the  orders  from  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  com- 
mander-in-chief. Religion  and  Virtue,  our  best  support, 
and  highest  honour,  confer  on  the  mind  principles  of  noble 
independence. 

Note. — In  parsing  such  sentences  as  the  above,  a  relative  and  a 
verb  may  be  inserted  between  the  words  in  apposition.  J\lyself,  thy- 
self,  himself,  &c.,  often  stand  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
words  with  which  they  agree;  as, 

Thomas  despatched  the  letter  himself.  They  gathered 
the  flowers  in  the  garden  themselves.  Ann  saw  the  trans- 
action herself,  and  could  not  be  mistaken. 

Rule  6.  Myself,  thyself,  himself,  &.c.,  often  form  the  objectives  of  ac- 
tive verbs,  of  which  the  icords  they  represent  are  the  subjects  or  nomina- 
tives.    They  are  in  such  cases  generally  called  Reflexive  pronouns;  as, 

/  hurt  myself.  He  wronged  himself  to  oblige  us. 
They  will  support  themselves  by  their  industry.  She  en- 
deavored to  shew  herself  off"  to  advantage.  We  must  con- 
fine ourselves  more  to  our  studies.  They  hurt  themselves 
by  their  great  an.xiety. 

Rule  7.  Mjectives,  taken  as  nouns,  and  itsed  in  reference  topeisons, 
are  generally  of  the  plural  number  ;  as, 

The  valiant  never  taste  of  death  but  once.  The  virtu- 
ous are  generally  the  most  happy.     The  diligent  make 


§  40.  ETYMOLOGY.  77 

most  improvement.  The  sincere  are  always  esteemed. 
The  inquisitive  are  generally  talkative.  The  dissipated 
are  much  to  be  pitied.  The  company  of  the  profane 
should  be  carefully  avoided.  The  temperate  are  generally 
the  most  healthy. 

Rule  8.  JVouns  and  pronmms,  taken  in  the  same  coimexioji,  7nnst 
he  of  the  same  case;  as, 

The  master  taught  him  and  me  to  write.  He  and  she 
were  school-fellows.  My  brother  and  he  are  tolerable 
grammarians.  He  gave  the  book  to  John  and  Thomas. 
I  lent  my  kiiife  and  pencil  to  one  of  the  scholars.  Peter 
and  John  gained  the  highest  prizes.  The  snow  and  the 
ice  have  quite  disappeared.  Exercise  and  temperance 
are  the  best  promoters  of  health. 

Rule  9.  .9  relative  generally  pi-ecedes  the  verb  that  governs  it;  as, 

He  is  a  friend  whom  I  greatly  respect.  They  whom 
luxury  has  corrupted,  cannot  relish  the  simple  pleasures  of 
life.  The  books  which  I  bought  yesterday  I  have  not  yei 
received.  The  trees  which  he  planted  in  the  spring  have 
all  died.  He  has  lost  the  friend  whom  he  so  much  re- 
spected. He  is  a  person  whom  all  must  admire.  The 
lesson  which  we  have  finished,  has  not  been  difficult. 

Rule  10.  When  both  a  relative  and  its  antecedent  have  each  a  verb 
belon;^iiig  to  it,  the  relative  is  commonly  the  nominative  to  the  first  verb, 
and  the  antecedent  to  the  second ;  as, 

Hk  7cho  acts  wisely  pesekves  praise.  He  who  is  a 
stranger  to  industry,  may  possess,  but  he  cannot  enjoy. 
They  who  are  born  in  high  stations  are  not  always  the 
most  happy.  The  man  who  is  faithfully  attached  to  re- 
ligion, may  be  relied  on  with  confidence.  Those  who  ex- 
cite envy  will  easily  incur  censure.  He  that  overcomes 
his  passions,  conquers  his  greatest  enemies. 

Rule  11.  What,  being  equal  /otliat  which,  m  the  thing  which,  mnj 
represent  tivo  cases,  either  both  nominative  or  both  objective ;  or,  the  on6 
itominative  and  the  other  objective  ;  as. 

This  is  precisely  what  was  necessary.  What  cannot  be 
prevented,  must  be  endured.  We  must  not  delay  till  to- 
morrow, what  ought  to  be  done  to-day.     Choose  what  is 

8* 


78  KNGLISII    GRAMMAR.  §  40 

most  fit ;  custom  will  make  it  the  most  agreeable.     Fool 
ish  men  are  more  apt  to  consider  what  they  have  lost  than 
what  they  possess.      What   he   gained   by   diligence,  he 
squandered  by  extravagance. 

Rule  12.  Whoever  wrirZ  whosoever,  used  as  relatives  (§  16,  Obs. 
3,)  generally  have  the  antecedent  implied,  so  that  they  seem  to  stand 
as  the  nominative  to  two  verbs,  or  as  at  once  the  objective  aft^r  a  verb 
or  preposition  and  the  nominative  of  a  succeeding  verb.  The  same 
is  the  case  vilh  whatever  and  whatsoever ;  as, 

Whoever  told  such  a  story,  must  have  been  misinformed. 
Whoever  is  not  content  in  poverty,  would  not  be  perfectly 
happy  in  the  midst  of  plenty.  Whoever  passes  his  time  in 
idleness,  can  make  but  little  improvement.  Whatever  gives 
pain  to  others,  deserves  not  the  name  of  pleasure.  W  hat- 
ever  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is  worth  doing  well. 

Note. —  Whutiver  is  most  frequently  used,  as  xchd  sometimes  is, 
(§  16,  Obs.  2.)  simply  to  qualify  a  noun  ;  as, 

Aspire  at  perfection,  in  whatever  state  of  life  you  may  be 
placed.  I  forget  what  words  he  uttered.  By  what  means 
shall  we  obtain  wisdom.  By  whatever  arts  we  may  at- 
tract attention,  we  can  secure  esteem  only  by  amiable  dis- 
positions. 

Rule  13.  Participles,  though  they  never  directly  declare,  yet  always 
imply  something  either  done  or  iloing;  and  are  used  in  reference  to  some 
notin  or  pronoitn ;  as, 

Admired  and  applauded,  he  became  vain.  Having 
finished  our  lessons,  we  went  to  play.  Proceeding  on  his 
journey,  he  was  seized  with  a  dangerous  malady.  Being 
engaged  at  the  time  of  my  call,  he  had  not  a  moment  to 
spend  with  me.  Having  early  disgraced  himself,  he  be- 
came mean  and  dispirited.  Knowing  him  to  be  my  su- 
perior, I  cheerfully  submitted. 

Rule  14.  The  perfect  participle  of  a  few  infr.  verbs  is  sometimes 
ioined  to  the  verb  to  be,  which  gives  such  verbs  a  passive  appearance ;  as, 

I  am  come,  in  compliance  with  your  desire.  If  such 
maxims  and  practices  prevail,  what  is  become  of  decency 
and  virtue  1  The  old  house  is  at  length  fallen  down. 
John  is  cone  to  London. 


§  40.  ETYMOLOGY.  79 

R0LE  15.  hitransidves  are  often  followed  by  prepositions,  makiyig 
xolmt  are  sometimes  called  compo^ind  trans,  verbs.  The  verb  and  prepo' 
sition  may  in  such  cases  be  parsed,  either  together  or  separately  in  the 
active  voice.     In  the  passive  voice  they  must  be  parsed  together  ;  as, 

He  laughed  at  such  folly.  They  smiled  upon  us  in  such 
a  way  as  to  inspire  courage.  He  struck  at  his  friend  with 
great  violence.  He  was  sadly  laughed  at  for  such  con- 
duct. 

Rule  16.  .^  noun  or  pronoun  is  often  used  with  a  participle,  without 
behig  connected  in  grammatical  construction  with  any  other  words  of  the 
sentence.     It  is  then  called  the  nominative  absolute ;  as, 

The  father  being  dead,  the  whole  estate  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  eldest  son.  He  destroyed,  or  won  to  what 
may  work  his  utter  loss,  all  this  will  soon  follow.  Whose 
gray  top  shall  tremble,  he  descending.  The  house  being 
built  and  finished,  he  was  expected  to  take  immediate 
possession.  The  sun  rising,  darkness  flies  away.  Our 
work  being  finished,  we  will  play. 

Rule  17.  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  omitted  after  the  verbs  bid, 
dare,  need,  make,  see,  hear,  feel,  and  let ;  and  sometimes  after  perceive, 
behold,  observe,  have,  know,  &c.  as. 

Let  me  look  at  your  portrait.  He  bade  me  go  with  him. 
I  heard  him  assert  the  opinion.  I  like  to  see  you  behave 
so  well.  Let  him  apply  to  his  books,  and  then  he  will 
make  improvement.  Let  us  make  all  the  haste  in  our 
power.  I  saw  him  ride  past  at  great  speed.  I  have  ob- 
served some  satirists  use  the  term. 

Rule  18.  J'erbs  connected  by  conjunctioiis,  are  usually  in  the  same 
mood  and  tense ;  but  in  the  compound  tenses  the  sign  is  often  used  with 
the  fir.tt  only  and  understood  icith  the  rest ;  as, 

He  ca7i  neither  read  nor  icrite.  He  shall  no  longer 
tease  and  vex  me  as  he  has  done.  He  commanded  them 
that  they  should  not  depart  from  Jerusalem,  but  wait  for  the 
promise  of  the  father.  His  diligence  should  have  been 
commended  and  rewarded.  Every  mind,  in  its  present 
state,  is  obliged  to  receive  information,  and  execute  its  pur- 
poses, by  the  intervention  of  the  body.  Fame  cannot 
spread  wide,  or  endure  long,  that  is  not  rooted  in  nature, 
and  matured  bv  ait. 


80  KNULI8H    GRAMMAB.  §  40. 

Rule  19.  J^ouns  and  pronoima,  and  especially  words  denoting  time, 
are  often  governed  by  prepositions  understood ;  or  are  used  to  restrict 
verbs  or  adJLCtivcs  icithout  a  governing  word,  ^  50.  Rem.  6  and  Rule;  as, 

He  gave  (to)  me  a  full  account  of  the  whole  affair. 
Will  you  lend  mc  your  knife.  It  is  not  time  yet  to  go  home. 
lie  returned  home  at  a  very  inconvenient  season.  He  tra- 
velled last  summer  as  far  as  London  on  foot.  He  was  in 
Paris  last  month.  He  visited  Rome  last  year  in  the  spring. 
They  remained  twenty-four  days  at  Naples,  and  walked 
twelve  miles  each  day.  I  sent  him  the  despatches  some 
time  ago. 

Rule  20.  The  conjunctions  than  and  as,  implying  comparison, 
have  the  same  case  after  them  as  before  them;  and  the  latter  case  has  the 
same  constrnclion  as  the  former  ;  as. 

He  has  more  books  than  my  brother  (has.)  Mary  is 
not  so  handsome  as  her  sisler  (is.)  They  respect  hi7n 
more  than  (they  respect)  us.  James  is  not  so  diligent 
as  Thomas.  They  are  much  greater  gainers  than  I  by 
this  unexpected  event.  Though  she  is  not  so  learned  as 
he,  she  is  as  much  beloved  and  respected.  These  people 
are  not  so  proud  as  he,  nor  so  vain  as  she. 

Rule  21.  The  class  of  words  or  part  of  speech  to  which  a  loord 
belongs,  depends  often  on  its  application ;  as. 

Calm  was  the  day  and  the  scene  delightful.  We  may 
expect  a  calm  after  a  storm.  To  prevent  passion  is 
easier  than  to  calm  it.  Better  is  a  little  with  content,  than 
a  groat  deal  with  anxiety.  The  gay  and  dissolute  think 
little  of  the  miseries  which  are  stealing  softly  after  them. 
A  little  attention  will  rectify  some  errors.  Though  he 
is  out  of  danger  he  is  still  afraid.  He  laboured  to  still 
the  tumult.  Still  waters  are  commonly  deepest.  Damp 
air  is  unwholesome.  Guilt  often  casts  a  damp  over  our 
sprightliest  hours.  Soft  bodies  damp  the  sound  much 
more  than  hard  ones.  Though  she  is  rich  and  fair,  yet 
she  is  not  amiable.  They  are  young,  and  must  suspend 
their  judgment  yet  a  while.  Many  persons  are  better 
than  we  suppose  them  to  be.  The  kvf  and  the  many 
have  their  prepossessions.  Few  days  pass  without  some 
clouds.     Much  money  is  corrupting.     Think  much  and 


§  40.  ETYMOLOGY.  81 

speak  little.  He  has  seen  much  of  the  world  and  been 
much  caressed.  His  years  are  more  than  hers,  but  ho 
has  not  more  knowledge.  The  more  we  are  blessed  the 
more  grateful  we  should  be.  The  desire  of  getting  more 
is  rarely  satisfied.  He  has  equal  knowledge,  but  in- 
ferior judgment.  She  is  his  inferior  in  sense  but  his 
equal  in  prudence. 

Rule  22.  Do,  have  and  be,  are  principal  verbs  when  used  by  them 
selves,  but  auxiliaries  lohen  connected  with  other  verbs  ;  as, 

He  does  all  in  his  power  to  gain  esteem.  He  did  his 
utmost  to  please  his  friend.  We  must  do  nothing  that 
will  sully  our  reputation.  She  has  a  strong  claim  to  our 
respect.  They  had  not  the  slightest  intention  to  wound 
our  feelings.  The  man  who  has  no  sense  of  religion  is 
little  to  be  trusted.  He  who  does  the  most  good  lias  the 
most  pleasure.  They  were  not  in  the  most  prosperous 
circumstances  when  we  last  saw  them.  He  does  not 
write  so  well  as  he  reads.  We  did  not  stay  with  him 
above  a  month.  True  wisdom  does  not  inspire  pride. 
The  butler  did  not  remember  Joseph.  Did  he  send  the 
book,  as  he  was  desired  ?  Do  they  make  much  pro- 
gress in  their  studies  ?  Have  they  ascertained  the  person 
who  gave  the  information?  They  had  not  determined 
what  course  to  take.     We  are  surprised  at  the  news. 

Rule  23.  Jin  infinitive,  a  participle,  or  a  member  of  a  sentence,  lohich 
may  be  called  a  substantive  phrase,  is  often  the  nominative  to  a  verb,  or 
the  objective  after  a  trans,  verb  or  preposition  ;  as, 

1.  Nominative.  To  study  hard  is  the  best  way  to  improve. 
To  endure  misfortune  with  resignation  is  the  characte- 
ristic of  a  great  mind.  To  advise  the  ignorant,  relieve 
the  needy  and  comfort  the  distressed,  are  duties  incum- 
bent on  all.  John's  being  from  home  occasioned  the  delay. 
His  having  neglected  opportunities  of  improvement,  was 
the  cause  of  his  disgrace.  The  implanting  of  right 
principles  in  the  breast  of  the  young,  is  important  both  to 
themselves  and  to  society.  The  assisting  of  a  friend  in 
such  circumstances  was  certainly  a  duty. 

2.  Objective.  He  that  knows  how  to  do  good  and  does 
it  not,  is  without  excuse.     He  will  regret  his  having  ne- 


ft2  EXGLtSII    GRAMMAR.  §  40. 

glected  opportunities  of  improvement  when  it  may  be  too 
late.  lie  declared  that  nothing  could  give  him  greater 
pleasure.  Of  making  many  books  there  is  no  end.  You 
will  never  repent  of  having  done  your  duty. 

Obs.  1.  When  a  substantive  phrase  is  governed  by  a  verb  or  prepo- 
sition, this  regimen  does  not  affect  the  case  of  individual  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns in  that  phrase,  but  leaves  them  subject  to  the  influence  of  other 
words  within  the  phrase  itself. 

Obs.  2.  In  sentences  of  this  kind,  the  infinitive  mood  and  participle 
are  often  used  for  the  tiaine  of  the  action,  or  state,  or  affection  express 
cd  by  the  verb ;  as, "  To  profess  (professing)  regard,  and  to  act  {acting) 
differently,  mark  a  base  mind."  Here  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the 
infinitive  and  participle  are  really  abstract  nouns  perfectly  indefinite  in 
their  application,  there  being  no  particular  subject  to  which  the  action 
may  be  referred. 

If  the  infinitive  or  participle  of  the  verb  to  be,  or  of  a  passive  verb  of 
naming,  &c.  (§  61,  R.  1.)  is  used  in  this  way  without  a  definite  sub- 
ject, the  substantive  which  follows  it  as  a  predicate  receives  the  same 
indefinite  character  ;  it  is  neither  the  subject  of  a  verb  nor  is  under 
the  regimen  of  any  word  ;  Thus,  "His  being  an  expert  dancer  does 
not  entitle  him  to  our  regard."  This  will  be  allowed  to  be  a  correct 
English  sentence,  complete  in  itself,  and  requiring  nothing  to  be 
supplied.  The  phrase,  "  being  an  expert  dancer,"  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb,  "does  entitle  ;"  but  the  word  "dancer"  in  that  phrase  is  neither 
the  subject  of  any  verb,  nor  is  governed  by  any  word  in  the  sentence. 
Of  this  kind  are  all  such  expressions  as  the  following :  "  It  is  an  ho- 
nour to  be  the  author  of  such  a  work."  "  To  be  virtuous  is  to  be  hap- 
py." "To  be  surety  for  a  stranger  is  dangerous."  "Not  to  know 
what  happened  before  you  were  born,  is  to  be  always  a  child."  "  The 
atrocious  crime  of  being  a  young  wia?i,  I  shall  neither  attempt  to  pdl- 
liate  or  deny."  (Pitt.)  "  He  was  not  sure  of  its  being  me."  "  Its  being 
vie  needs  make  no  difference  in  your  determination." 

If  the  last  two  examples  are  correct,  they  shew  that  whether  the 
phrase  is  the  nominative  or  objective,  i.  e.  whether  it  is  the  subject  of  a 
verb  or  is  governed  by  a  trans,  verb  or  preposition  ;  the  word  fol- 
lowing the  infinitive  or  participle  as  a  predicate  is  properly  in  the  o6- 
jective  case,*  and  in  parsing,  may  correctly  be  called  the  objective  in- 

*  This  corresponds  to  the  Latin  and  Greek  idiom  in  such  sentences  as  the 
following :  "  Nescirc  quid  accident  antequam  natus  es,  est  semper  esse  pue- 
r*vt." — Not  to  know  what  happened  in  past  years,  is  (o  6«  always  a  child— 


§  41.  ETYMOLOGY.  83 

definite.  Or  the  whole  phrase  may  be  parsed  as  one  word.  (§61,  Rem. 
2.)  The  following  are  also  examples. 

He  had  the  honour  of  being  a  director  for  life.  By  be- 
ing a  diligent  student,  he  soon  acquired  eminence  in  his 
profession.  Many  benefits  result  to  men  from  being  wise 
and  temperate  (men.) 

Rule  24.  It,  often  refers  to  persons,  (§  15,  Obs.  5,)  or  to  an  infini- 
tive coming  after ;  as, 

It  is  JoJrn  that  is  to  blame.  It  was  I  that  wrote  the  let- 
ter. It  is  the  duty  of  all  to  improve.  It  is  the  business 
of  every  man  to  prepare  for  death.  It  was  reserved  for 
Newton  to  discover  the  law  of  gravitation.  It  is  easy  to 
form  good  resolutions,  but  difficult  to  put  them  in  practice. 
It  is  incumbent  on  the  young  to  love  and  honour  their  pa- 
rents. 

Rule  25.  Words,  especially  in  poetry,  are  often  muck  transposed  ;  as, 
Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians.  On  yourself  depend 
for  aid.  Happy  the  man  who  puts  his  trust  in  his  maker. 
Of  night  the  gloom  was  dark  and  dense. 

Or  where  the  gorgeous  east,  with  richest  hand 

Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric,  pearls  and  gold. 

No  hive  hast  thou  of  hoarded  sweets. 

A  transient  calm  the  happy  scenes  bestow 

When  first  thy  sire  to  send  on  earth 

Virtue,  his  darling  child,  designed. 

On  flattering  appearances  put  no  reliance. 

He  witJi  viny  crown  advancing. 

First  to  the  lively  pipe  his  hand  addressed. 

Grieved  though  thou  art,  forbear  the  rash  design. 

Not  half  so  dreadful  rises  to  the  sight 

Orion's  dog,  the  year  when  Autumn  weighs. 

§  41.  PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

The  world  was  made  by  a  Supreme  Being.  He  who 
made  it  now  preserves  and  governs  it.  Nothing  happens 
without  his  permission.    He  sees  all  our  actions  and  hears 

Ian  Tiov  alaxpdv  .  .  .  tottoiv,  oiv  rlpiv  irort  Kvpioi  <palvscdai  rpoXtiitvovt- 
"  It  is  a  sliame  to  be  seen  giving  up  countries  of  wliich  we  were  once  niastcre." 
—Demosthenes. 


84  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  41. 

all  our  words.  The  thoughts  of  the  heart  arc  known  to 
him.  In  him  we  live,  he  gave  us  hfe,  and  without  him  we 
cannot  breathe.  Wherever  we  are,  God  is  with  us. 
When  we  sit  in  the  house  God  is  there ;  and  when  we 
walk  by  the  way,  he  is  at  our  right  hand.  He  is  a  spirit, 
and  fills  heaven  and  earth  with  his  presence. 

Demosthenes,  who  was  born  at  Athens,  was  a  very  fa- 
mous orator.  He  acquired  the  art  of  speaking  by  great 
labor  and  study.  By  nature  he  had  not  a  good  voice, 
and  could  not  rightly  pronounce  some  words.  That  he 
might  learn  to  speak  distinctly,  he  put  small  round  peb- 
bles in  his  mouth  while  he  spoke,  in  order  to  cure  his  de- 
fect. He  used  to  shut  himself  up  in  his  chamber,  and  to 
study  a  whole  month  together.  He  often  went  to  the 
shore,  and  pronounced  his  orations  to  the  waves,  that  he 
might  be  better  able  to  endure  the  noise  and  clamor  of 
the  people.  He  made  many  orations  both  on  private 
and  public  occasions.  But  he  used  his  eloquence  chiefly 
against  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  and,  in  several  orations, 
he  stirred  up  the  Athenians  to  make  war  against  him. 

The  mimic  thrush,  or  mocking  bird,  is  about  the  size  of 
a  blackbird,  but  somewhat  more  slender.  The  plumage  is 
grey,  but  paler  on  the  under  parts  than  above. 

It  is  common  in  some  parts  of  America  and  in  Jamaica  ; 
but  changes  its  place  in  summer,  being  then  seen  much 
more  to  the  northward  than  in  winter.  It  cannot  vie  with 
die  feathered  inhabitants  of  those  countries  in  brilliancy  of 
plumage  ;  but  is  content  with  much  more  rare  and  estima- 
ble qualities.  It  possesses  not  only  natural  notes  of  its 
own,  which  are  truly  musical  and  solemn,  but  it  can  at  plea- 
sure assume  the  tone  of  every  other  animal  in  the  forest, 
from  the  humming  bird  to  the  eagle,  descending  even  to 
the  wolf  or  raven.  One  of  them  confined  in  a  cage  has  been 
heard  to  mimic  the  chattering  of  a  magpie,  and  the  creak- 
ing of  the  hinges  of  a  sign-post  in  high  winds. 

This  capricious  little  mimic  seems  to  have  a  singular 
pleasure  in  archly  leading  other  birds  astray.  He  is  said 
at  one  time  to  allure  the  smaller  birds  with  the  call  of  their 
mates  ;  and  when  these  come  near,  to  terrify  them  with  the 
scream  of  the  eagle.  There  is  scarcely  a  bird  of  the  fo- 
rest, that  is  not  at  some  time  deceived  by  his  call. 


$  41.  ETYMOLOGY.  85. 

THE  POPLAR  FIELD. 

The  poplars  are  fell'd,  farewell  to  the  shade, 
And  the  whispering  sound  of  the  cool  colonade, 
The  winds  play  no  longer  and  sing  in  the  leaves, 
Nor  Ouse  in  his  bosom  their  image  receives. 
Twelve  years  have  elapsed  since  I  last  took  a  view 
Of  my  favorite  field,  and  the  bank  where  they  grew; 
And  now  in  the  grass,  behold  they  are  laid, 
And  the  tree  is  my  seat,  that  once  lent  me  shade. 
The  blackbird  has  fled  to  another  retreat, 
Where  the  hazels  afford  him  a  screen  from  the  heat; 
And  the  scene,  where  his  melody  charmed  me  before, 
Resounds  with  his  sweet-flowing  ditty  no  more. 
My  fugitive  years  are  all  hastening  away, 
And  I  must  ere  long  lie  as  lowly  as  they, 
With  a  turf  on  my  breast,  and  a  stone  at  my  head, 
Ere  another  such  grove  shall  arise  in  its  stead. 

Mte. — For  additional  exercises  in  parsing,  any  simple  correct  writer  may  be 
used  by  those  who  are  le?s  advanced  ;  and  forthe  more  advanced  student  nothing 
better  can  be  supplied  than  Pope's  Essay  on  Manor  Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

9 


PART  111. 

§43.    SYNTAX. 

Syntax  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which  treats  oJ 
the  proper  arrangement  and  connexion  of  words  in  a 
sentence. 

A  sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  makes 
complete  sense  ;  as,  Man  is  mortal, 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together,  but 
not  making  complete  sense  ;  as.  In  truth  ;  To  be  plain  with 
you. 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds.  Simple  and  Compound. 

A  Simpile  sentence  contains  but  one  subject  and  one 
finite*  verb  ;  as.  Life  is  short. 

A  Compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  simple  sen- 
tences combined  ;  as,  Life,  which  is  short,  should  he  well 
employed. 

Every  simple  sentence  or  proposition  consists  of  two  parts,  the  suh- 
ject  and  the  predicate. 

The  subject  is  the  thing  chiefly  spoken  of.  In  Enghsh  it  is  always 
the  nominative  to  the  verb. 

The  predicate  is  the  thing  affirmed  or  denied  of  the  subject.  It  is 
either  contained  in  the  verb  itself,  as,  "Jo/in  reatfs,"  or  it  follows  the 
verb  to  be,  or  some  other  verb  of  like  import,  which  in  this  case  is 
called  the  covda  ;  as,  "  Time  is  shortJ"  "  They  became  poor.''''  11  the 
predicate  contains  an  active  verb,  the  object  of  the  action  expressed  by 
it  fol'.ows  in  the  objective  case.     Neuter  verbs  have  no  object. 

The  subject  or  nominative,  the  verb  and  the  object,  may  each  be 
attended  by  other  words  called  adjuncts,  which  serve  to  modify  or  re- 
strict the  meaning  of  the  word  with  which  they  stand  connected  ;  as, 

■■''  A  finite  verb  is  a  verb  restricted  by  person  and  number.  All  verbs  are  finite 
fti  the  indicative,  Potential,  Subjunctive,  and  Imperative;  but  not  in  the  Infini- 
ttve  and  Participleg. 


§  44, 45.  SYNTAX.  87 

"An  inordinate  desire  of  admiration  often  prodwes  a  contemptible 
levity  of  deportment." 

When  a  compound  sentence  is  so  framed  that  the  meaning  is  sus- 
pended till  the  whole  be  finished,  it  is  called  a  Period ;  otherwise  the 
sentence  is  said  to  be  loose. 

§44.     GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  SYNTAX. 

1.  In  every  sentence  there  must  be  a  verb  and  a  nomi- 
native (or  subject)  expressed  or  understood. 

2.  Every  article,  adjective,  adjective  pronoun,  or  par- 
ticiple, must  have  a  substantive  expressed  or  understood. 

3.  Every  nominative  has  its  own  verb  expressed  or  un- 
derstood. 

4.  Every  verb  (except  in  the  infinitive  and  participles) 
has  its  own  nominative  expressed  or  understood. 

5.  Every  possessive  case  is  governed  by  some  noun 
denoting  the  thing  possessed. 

6.  Every  objective  case  is  governed  by  an  active  verb 
or  preposition. 

7.  The  infinitive  mood  is  governed  by  a  verb,  an  ad- 
jective or  substantive. 

Obs.  The  exceptions  to  these  general  principles  will  appear  in  the 
Rules  of  Syntax. 

§  45.     PARTS  OF  SYNTAX. 

The  Rules  of  Syntax  may  all  be  included  under  three 
heads,  Concord,  Government  and  Position. 

Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  word  has  with  an- 
other in  gender,  number,  case,  or  person. 

Government  is  that  power  which  one  word  has  in  direct- 
ing the  mood,  tense,  or  case  of  another  word. 

Position  means  the  place  which  a  word  occupies  in  a 
sentence. 

In  the  English  language,  which  has  but  few  inflections,  the  mean- 
ing of  a  sentence  depends  much  on  the  position  of  tlie  words  which 
it  contains. 


88  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  ^  46. 

§  46.  Rule  I.  A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  no- 
tninative  i?i  number  and  jjerson  ;  as,  Thou  readest. 
He  reads.  We  read. 

JV,He  1.  The  nominative  to  a  verb  is  known  by  puttini;  the  question  IVho  ?  or, 
O'Aof  ?  with  the  verb.  The  answer  to  the  question  will  be  the  nominative  ;  aa, 
"  /  read."    Who  reads'?  Ans.  /. 

JVote'2.  Under  this  nile  the  General  Princijjles  ^44,3,4,  must  be  carefully  ob- 
sei  ved.    For,  as  follows,  as  concerns,  as  appears,  &c.    See  $  86,  3. 

EXERCISES. 

I  loves  reading.  A  soft  answer  turn  away  wrath.  We 
is  but  of  yesterday  and  know  nothing.  The  days  of  man 
is  but  as  grass.  Thou  sees  how  little  has  been  done.  He 
need  not  proceed  in  such  haste.  He  dare  not  act  other- 
wise. Fifty  pounds  of  wheat  contains  forty  pounds  of 
flour.  A  variety  of  pleasing  objects  charm  the  eye.  Sc 
much  both  of  ability  and  merit  are  seldom  found.  Nothing 
but  vain  and  foolish  pursuits  delight  some  persons.  A  judici- 
ous arrangement  of  studies  facilitate  improvement.  A  few 
pangs  of  conscience  now  and  then  interrupts  his  pleasure, 
and  whispers  to  him  that  he  once  had  better  thoughts. 
There  was  more  impostors  than  one.  What  signifies  good 
opinions  when  our  practice  is  bad  t  To  these  precepts 
are  subjoined  a  copious  selection  of  rules  and  maxims. 
In  vain  our  flocks  and  fields  increase  our  store, 
When  our  abundance  make  us  wish  for  more. 

The  number  of  our  days  are  with  thee.  There  remains 
two  points  to  be  considered.  There  is  in  fact  no  imper- 
sonal  verbs  in  any  language.  I  have  considered  what  have 
been  said  on  both  sides.  Great  pains  has  been  taken  to 
make  this  work  as  useful  as  possible.  In  piety  and  vir- 
tue consist  the  happiness  of  man.  You  was  not  at  home 
when  the  servant  called.  Thomas  where  wast  you  when  1 
called.     §  15,  Obs.  4. 

In  order  to  exercise  the  judgment  of  the  pupil,  as  well  as  to  shew  that  he  under- 
stands the  rule,  he  may  be  required  to  assign  a  reason  for  the  changes  made  in 
correcting  the  exercises  under  this  and  the  following  rules.  If  well  versed  in 
parsing,  this  may  be  done  without  loss  of  time,  even  in  a  large  class,  by  directing 
him  to  state  the  reason  always,  without  waiting  to  be  asked  for  it.  Thus  in  the 
above  exercises,  "  Loves"  should  be  "  love,"  because  "  /"  is  the  1st  pers.  sing. 
"Turn"  should  be  "  turns,"  because  "  ansioer"  is  tho  3d  pers.  sing.  &c. 


§  47.  SYNTAX.  69 

§  47.  Special  rules  and  observations  under  rule  1. 

Rule  I.  The  subject  of  a  verb  should  be  in  the  nominative ;  as,  He 
and  she  are  of  the  same  age  ;  not,  Him  and  her. 

Rule  II.  The  Irifinitive  mood  or  part  of  a  sentence  is  often  used  as 
the  nominative  to  a  verb  ;  as,  To  play  is  pleasant ;  His  being  at  enmity 
loith  Ccesar,  was  the  cause  of  perpetual  discord. 

Rule  III.  *4  noun  singular  used  for  a  plural  is  joined  to  a  plural 
verb;  as,  Ten  sail  of  <he  lino  were  seen  at  a  distance.  (§  10,  4  note.') 

JVote.  Nouns  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  signification,  may  be  joined  either 
with  a  singular  or  plural  verb.  ^  10,  5. 

Rule  IV.  ./?  noun  and  its  pronoun  should  never  be  used  as  a  nomina- 
tive to  the  same  verb ;  as.  The  king  is  just;  not,  the  king  he  is  just, 
Exce[)t  that  himself,  herself,  &c.  arc  joined  with  a  noun  or  pronoun 
rendering  it  emphatic.  §  15,  Obs.  2. 

Rule  V.  IVhen  the  verb  to  be  stands  between  a  singular  aiul  plural 
nominative,  it  agrees  xuith  the  one  next  it,  or  the  one  whichis  more  natur- 
ally the  subject  of  it;  as.  The  wages  of  sin  is  death. 

EXERCISES  ON  PRECEDING  RULES. 

I.  Him  and  I  are  able  to  do  it.  You  and  us  enjoy  many 
privileges.  I  thought  you  and  them  had  become  friends. 
If  you  were  here,  you  would  find  three  or  four,  whom  you 
would  say  pass  their  time  very  agreeably.  Whom  shall 
be  sent  to  admonish  him  ? 

II.  To  live  soberly,  righteously  and  godly  are  required 
of  all  men.  To  do  unto  others  as  we  would  that  they 
should  do  unto  us,  constitute  the  great  principle  of  virtue. 
A  fondnesis  for  distinction  often  render  a  man  ridiculous. 

III.  Forty  head  of  cattle  was  grazing  in  yonder  mea- 
dow. Twelve  brace  of  pigeons  was  sold  for  a  dollar. 
One  pair  were  spoiled  ;   five  pair  was  in  good  condition. 

IV.  Simple  and  innocent  pleasures  they  alone  are  dura- 
ble. My  banks  they  arc  furnished  with  bees.  This  rule 
if  it  had  been  observed,  a  neighboring  prince  would  have 
wanted  a  great  deal  of  that  incense  which  has  been  ofiered 
up  to  him.  .lohn,  he  said  so,  and  Thomas,  he  said  so,  and 
the  rest  of  them,  they  all  said  so.  Man  that  is  born  of  a 
woinan  he  is  of  few  days  and  full  of  trouble. 

V.  A  great  cause  of  the  low  state  of  industry  was  the 
restraints  put  upon  it.  His  meat  were  locusts  and  wild  ho- 
ney.    The  crown  of  virtue  is  peace  and  honour. 

9^ 


90  .    ENGhtSlI   (JRAiMMAll.  §    48. 

§  48.  llui-E  II.  A  Iranskive  verb,  in  the  active 
voice,  governs  the  objective  case ;  as,  Wc  love  him. 
He  loves  us.     Whom  did  they  send  ? 

Ohs.  An  intransitive  verb  sometimes  becomes  tfiinsitive,  (§  21,  Ob*. 
2,)  and  governs  the  objective  case  of  a  noun  of  the  same  or  kindred 
signification  ;  as,  "  Let  us  run  the  race."  With  this  construction,  may 
be  classed  such  expressions  as  the  following: — "The  brooks  ran  nec- 
tar." "The  trees  wept  gums  and  balm."  "Her  lips  blush  deeper 
sweets."    "  They  ascended  the  mountain." 

Remark  1.  Tlie  participle,  being  a  part  nf  tlie  verb,  governs  the  sanne  case. 

Rem.  2.  VVIieii  the  objective  is  a  relative  or  interrogative,  it  conies  before  the 
verb  that  governs  it.    §  40,  R.  9.     (Murray's  Gth  rule  is  unnece.ssary.) 

Rem.  3.  The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  as  well  as  a  noun  or  prw 
noun,  may  be  the  object  of  a  transitive  active  verb;  as,  Boys  love  to  play ;  I  wish 
that  they  were  wise.     You  see  how  few  men  have  returned. 

Rem.  4.  As  substantives  have  no  distinct  form  of  the  objective  case,  the  ar 
rangement  of  the  sentence  should  clearly  distinguish  the  one  case  from  the  other 
The  nominative  generally  precedes  the  verb ;  the  objective  follows  it ;  but 
when  the  objective  is  a  relative  or  interrogative,  it  precedes  both  the  verb 
and  its  nominative.  The  objective  should  not,  if  possible,  be  separated  from 
its  verb. 

EXERCISES. 

He  loves  I.     He  and  they  we  know,  but  who  art  thou 
She  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply.     Ye  only 
nave  I  known.     Let  thou  and  I  the  battle  try.     He  whc 
committed  the  offence,  thou  shouldst  correct ;  not  I  who 
am  innocent. 

(R.  1.)  Esteeming  theirselves  wise,  they  became  fools. 
Upon  seeing  I,  he  turned  pale.  Having  e>;po.sed  his  self 
to  the  tire  of  the  enemy,  he  soon  lost  an  arm  in  the  action. 

(R.  2.)  The  man  who  he  raised  from  ob.scurity,  is  dead. 
Who  did  they  entertain  so  freely  1  They  are  the  persons 
who  we  ought  to  respect.  "Who  having  not  seen,  we  love. 
They  who  opulence  has  made  proud,  and  who  lu.xury  has 
corrupted,  are  not  happy.  Who  do  I  love  so  much  ?  Who 
should  I  meet  the  other  day  but  my  old  friend  ?  Who  shall 
I  pay  for  this  service  ? 

(R.  4.)  Faulty  Arrangement. — This  is  the  man,  he  be- 
lieved, whom  he  would  send  on  that  busmess.  Becket 
could  not  better  discover,  than  by  attacking  so  powerful  an 
interest,  his  resolution  to  maintain  his  right. 


§49  SVMAX.  ^91 

§  49.     Special  Rules  under  Rule  II. 

I.  Intransitive  verbs  never  have  an  objective  case  after  them  ;  llius, 
"  Repenting  him.  of  his  design,"  should  be  "  repenting  of  liis  design." 

II.  Intransitive  verbs  do  not  admit  a  passive  voice,  (§  19.  5.) 
except  the  nominative  be  of  the  same,  or  kindred  signification  with 
the  verb  itself ;  as,  My  race  is  nin. 

III.  Transitive  verbs  do  not  admit  a  preposition  after  them,  thus, 
"  I  must  premise  with  three  circunisLanccs,"  should  be,  "  I  must 
picinisc  three  circurnslanecs." 

Obs.  Verbs  signifying  lo  ask,  teach,  offer,  promise,  pa\',  tell,  allow,  de- 
ny, and  some  others,  sometimes  in  colKxiuini  Innguaxje  have  an  objective 
case  after  '.lie  passive  voice  ;  as,  I  was  tau^dit  Grammar.  This  may  also 
be  expressed  arfiieZy ;  as,  He  taught  (to)  me  Grammar;  or  passively, 
Grammar  was  taught  (to)  me. 

IV.  A  noun  and  its  pronoun  shouhl  not  be  used  as  the  ohjcclive  after 
the  same  verb   or  preposition. 

EXERCISES. 

[.  The  king  fotuid  reason  to  repent  him  of  such  dan 
geroiis  enemies.  Tliey  did  not  fail  to  enlarjje  tliemselvcs 
on  the  sui)j('ct.  Go  flee  thee  asvay  into  the  land  of  Ju- 
dea.  It  will  be  difficult  to  agree  his  conduct  with  the 
principles  ho  professes.  "Then  having  showed  his 
wounds,  he'd  sit  him  down." 

II.  This  person  was  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against 
his  master.  Fifty  men  are  deserted  from  tlie  army. 
The  inlluence  of  tiiis  corrupt  example  was  then  entirely 
ceased.      iVIv  fatlier  was  returned  yesterday, 

III.  I  shall  premise  with  two  or  three  general  ohscrva- 
ti<jus.  He  ingratiates  with  some,  hy  traducing  others. 
^Ve  ought  to  disengtige  from  the  world  hy  degrees.  He 
will  not  allow  of  it.  They  shall  not  wan(  for  encourage- 
inent.     Tiie  covetous  man  pursues  after  gain. 

(()l)s.)  Chajise  the.  fallowing  sentences  into  the  fyrms 
specified  in  the  Obs. — A  few  questions  were  asked  at  the 
witness.  A  ship  was  promised  to  him  in  a  k\v  weeks. 
A  ])ardon  was  ofTered  (to)  him.  (ireat  liberty  was  al. 
lowed  (to)  n)e.  That  was  told  (to)  him  some  time  ago. 
She  would  not  accejjt  the  jewels,  though  they  were  of- 
fered to  her  hy  her  mother. 


92  KNGLISII    GRAMMAR.  §  50. 

§  50.  Rule  III.  Prepositions  govern  the  objec- 
tive case;  as,  To  inhoyn  much  is  given,  of  him 
much  shall  be  required. 

Remark  1.  Prepositions  should  l>e  [Haccd  before  the  words  wliicli  they  govern, 
and  as  near  to  tli«m  as  possilile ;  but  iu'ver  before  the  relative  that. 

Remark  2.  Whom  and  which  are  sometimes  \Ln\cmcA  by  a  preposition  at  some 
dist.-ince  after  Hieni ;  but  tliia  is  at  least  inelegant,  and  sliould  be  avoided  in  com- 
position. 

Remark  3.  The  preposition,  with  its  regimen,  should  be  placed  as  near  :i8 
possible  to  the  word  to  wliich  it  is  related. 

Remark  4.  A  preposition  should  never  be  used  before  the  infinitive. 

Remark  5.  It  is  generally  inelegant  and  improper  to  connect  a  preposition  and 
an  active  verb  wiili  the  same  word  :  as.  I  wrote  to,  and  teamed  him  of  his  danger. 

Remark  6.  The  preposition  is  often  omitted ;  an,  Give  (to)  me  the  book  ;  do  i", 
(in)  your  own  way;  I  wrote  (to)  you  long  ago;  like  (unto)  his  father.  Many 
eases  of  supposed  ellipsis,  however,  may  be  better  disposed  of  luidcrthc  following 

Rule,  w?  noxm  denoting  time,  place,  price,  weight,  or  measure,  is  some- 
times used  in  the  objective,  without  a  goremingioord,  to  restrict  the  mean- 
ing of  a  verb  or  adjective  with  tvhich  it  stands  connected  ;  as,  He  was  ab- 
sent six  months. — Let  us  go  home. — Jt  cost  a  penny,  but  it  is  not  worth 
Si  farthing.    The  parcel  weighs  a  ]}onnd.     The  wall  is  six  feet  high. 

This  may  be  called  the  objective  case  restrictive. 

EXERCISES. 
To  who  will  5'ou  give  that  pen?  Will  you  go  with 
him  and  I?  Withhold  not  good  from  they  to  who  it  i.s 
due.  With  who  do  you  live  ?  Groat  friendship  subsists 
between  he  and  I.  He  laid  the  suspicion  on  somebody, 
I  know  not  who,  in  the  company.  (Rem.  1.)  Who  do 
you  speak  to  ?  Who  did  Ihey  ride  with  ?  It  was  not  he 
that  they  were  angry  with.  To  have  no  one  who  we 
are  warmly  concerned  for,  is  a  deplorable  state.  2.  It 
was  not  he  that  they  were  so  angry  with.  The  book 
which  the  story  is  printed  in,  is  full  of  fiction.  3.  The 
embarrassments  of  the  artificers  rendered  the  progress 
very  slow  of  the  work.  Beyond  this  period,  the  arts 
cannot  be  traced  of  civil  society.  4.  What  went  ye  out 
for  to  see  ?  Can  you  give  me  wa.x  for  to  seal  this  letter  ? 
He  set  out  for  to  go  home  an  hour  ago.  5.  He  Vvas 
afraid  of,  and  wished  to  shun  them.  He  claimed  and 
insisted  upon  his  rights.  6  Will  you  have  the  goodness 
to  lend  to  me  your  grammar  ?  I  will  return  it  on  to-mor- 
row 


§  51*  SYNTAX.  93 

§  51.  Rule  IV.  Two  or  more  iioims  in  the  sin- 
gular, taken  in  connexion,  require  a  verb  and  pro- 
noun in  the  plural;  as,  1.  Cato  and  Cicero  were 
learned  men,  and  thet/  loved  their  country.  2.  Ho- 
nour, justice,  religion  itself,  are  derided  by  the  profli- 
gate. 3.  The  king,  with  the  lords  and  commons, 
constitute  the  English  form  of  government. 

Observation  1.  Nouns  are  viewed  in  connexion  when  they  stand  together  as 
tlic  nominative  to  the  same  verb,  not  separately,  but  combined,  forming  a  plural 
subject,  i.  e.  a  subject  consisting  of  more  things  tjian  one.  Sometimes  they  are 
joined  by  the  conjunction  "  and,"  as  in  the  first  example ;  sometimes  they  nro 
without  a  conjunction,  as  in  the  2d ;  and  sometimes  the  connexion  is  formed  by 
the  preposition  "  with,"  as  in  the  3d.  But  in  tliis  case,  the  verb,  kc.  should  be 
plural,  only  when  the  words  connected  by  "  icitk  "  essentially  belong  to  the  sub- 
ject.  When  not  essential,  but  a  rnerc  accompaniment,  the  verb  should  be  singu- 
lar ;  as,  the  ship,  with  her  cargo,  was  lost. 

Obs.  '2.  But  when  two  names  arc  used  to  represent  cue  subject,  the  verb  may 
be  in  the  singular;  as,  Why  is  dust  and  ashes  proud. 

Obs.  3.  When  comparison  is  expressed  or  implied,  and  not  combination,  the 
verb  should  be  singular ;  as,  Casar,  as  w«ll  as  Cicero,  was  remarkable  for  elo. 
quence. 

EXERCISES. 

Patience  and  diligence,  like  faith,  removes  mountains. 
Life  and  death  is  in  the  power  of  the  tongue.  Wisdom, 
virtue,  happiness,  dwells  with  the  golden  mediocrity.  An- 
ger, and  impatience  is  always  unreasonable.  His  polite- 
ness and  good  disposition  was,  on  failure  of  their  effect, 
entirely  changed.  By  whose  power  all  good  and  evil  is 
distributed.  Luxurious  living  and  high  pleasures,  begets 
a  languor  and  satiety  that  destroys  all  enjoyment.  Out  of 
the  same  mouth  proceedeth  blessing  and  cursing.  Leisure 
of  life  and  tranquillity  of  mind,  which  fortune  and  your  own 
wisdom  has  given  you,  is  capable  of  being  better  employed. 
Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man. 

(Obs.  2.)  That  able  scholar  and  critic  have  been  emi- 
nently useful.  Your  friend  and  patron,  whose  name  I  have 
forgotten,  have  just  now  been  enquiring  for  you. 

(Obs.  3.)  I,  as  well  as  they,  are  entitled  to  redress. 
Perseverance,  as  well  as  talents  and  application,  are  neces- 
sary  to  eminence  in  literary  pursuits.  But  he,  a.s  well  as 
Lord  Clive,  have  been  harshly  judged  by  men,  who  have 
listened  to  their  enemies. 


i)i  ENGLISH    GRAMMAK.  §  52. 

§  52.  Rule  V.  Two  or  more  nouns  in  the  sin- 
gular, takeji  separately,  have  the  verb  or  pronoun 
in  the  singular ;  as,  John,  James,  or  Andrew,  in- 
tends  to  accompany  you. 

Remark. — Nouns  are  viewed  separately,  when,  though  they  all  stand  .is  the 
nominative  to  the  verb,  yet  either  one,  exclusive  of  all  the  rest,  is  the  subject  of 
discourse,  as  in  the  above  example,  or,  thouf;li  ;ill  are  equally  the  subject  of  dis- 
course, yet  they  are  not  so  in  combination,  but  individuaXly.  In  this  case  Uie 
verb  agrees  with  the  last,  and  is  understood  to  the  rest. 

Obs. — Sometimes,  however,  when  the  verb  affirms,  and  more  especially  when 
it  denies,  of  the  dilTerent  nominatives,  thon^'h  they  bo  disjoined  by  the  conjunc- 
tion, it  may  be  put  in  the  plural ;  as.  Neither  you  nor  I  are  in  fault.  This  cor 
responds  to  the  Latin  construction,  "Id  neque  ego  ncque  tu  fecimus." — Ter. 
Hec. — Crom.hie\f  Evglish  Syntax.,  p.  237. 

Separation  is  usually  marked  by  the  disjunctives  or  and  nor,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood, or  by  prefixing  each  or  every.  But  each  and  every,  subjoined  distribu- 
tively  to  a  plural  subject,  do  not  affect  the  verb  ;  as,  They  have  conspired  each 
to  recommend  the  other. 

RtrLE. — Ji  singular  and  a  plural  nominative,  separated  hy  a  disjunc- 
tive, require  a  verb  in  Ike  plural;  as,  Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors 
were  saved. 

*,,,*  The  plural  nominative  should  be  placed  next  the  verb. 

EXERCISES. 

Either  the  boy  or  the  girl  were  present.  It  must  be  con- 
fessed that  a  lampoon  or  a  satire  do  not  carry  in  them  rob- 
bery or  murder.  The  modest  virgin,  the  prudent  wife,  or 
the  careful  matron,  are  much  more  serviceable  in  life  than 
petticoated  philosophers.  Neither  precept  nor  discipline 
are  so  forcible  as  example.  Man  is  not  such  a  machine 
as  a  clock  or  a  watch,  which  move  merely  as  they  are 
moved.  Every  man,  woman,  and  child,  were  excluded. 
They,  every  one,  pursues  his  destined  course.  Each  of 
the  seasons,  as  they  revolve,  give  fresh  proof  of  the  Divine 
power  and  goodness.  The  seasons,  each  as  it  revolves, 
gives  pleasure  to  the  soul.  Neither  poverty  nor  riches  was 
injurious  to  him.  They  or  he  was  offended.  Neither  the 
king  nor  his  ministers  deserves  to  be  praised.  Whether 
one  or  more  was  concerned  in  the  business,  does  not  yet 
appear.  An  ostentatious,  a  feeble,  a  harsh,  or  an  obscure 
style,  are  always  faults.  Neither  the  captain,  nor  the  pas- 
sengers, nor  any  of  the  crew,  was  saved. 


§  53.  SYNTAX.  76 

§  53.  Rule  VI.  1.  W7ien  two  or  more  nomina- 
tives cmnhined  are  of  different  persons^  the  verb  and 
pronoun  i?i  the  plural,  prefer  the  first  person  to  the 
second,  and  the  second  to  the  third  ;  as,  He  and  / 
shared  (first  person)  it  between  us, 

2.  When  nom^inatives  of  different  persons  are 
disjunctively/  connected^  the  verb  in  the  singular 
agrees  ivith  the  j^Grson  next  it ;  as,  Thou  or  he  is 
the  author  of  it.     He  or  /  a?7i  to  blame. 

Rem.. — In  the  order  of  arrangement  in  Knglisli,  the  second  person  is  nsuaily 
placed  before  the  third,  and  tlie  first  person  is  always  placed  last. 

EXERCISES, 

1.  James,  and  thou,  and  I,  arc  attached  to  their  coun- 
try.  Thou,  and  the  gardner,  and  the  huntsman,  must 
share  the  blame  of  this  business  amongst  tliem.  My  sis- 
ter and  I,  as  well  as  my  brother,  are  daily  employed  in 
their  respective  occupations.  ^Vhilc  you  are  playing,  my 
brother  and  I  are  attentive  to  their  studies.  You  and  I 
Mill  devote  your  leisure  hours  to  study.  Both  you  and  he 
will  be  disappointed  in  their  object, 

2.  Either  thou  or  I  art  greatly  mistaken.  lie  or  I  is 
sure  of  this  week's  prize.  Thomas  or  thou  hast  spilt  the 
ink  on  my  paper,  John  or  I  has  done  it.  Thou  or  h« 
art  the  person  who  must  go  on  that  business. 

Promiscuous  Exercises  on  the  Preceding  Rules. 

You  was  there.  Was  the  horses  ready.  There  are  a 
flock  of  geese.  In  the  human  species  the  influence  of  in- 
stinct and  habit  are  generally  assisted  by  the  suggestions 
of  reason.  His  having  robbed  several  men  were  the  cause 
of  his  punishment.  Learning,  how  much  soever  it  may  be 
despised  by  some,  yet  men  know  it  to  be  an  acquirement 
of  great  value.  He,  not  tlie  ministers,  control  all  things. 
These  we  have  extracted  from  a  historian  of  great  merit, 
and  are  tlie  same  that  were  formerly  practised.  Ilis  wis- 
dom and  not  his  money  prmluce  esteem.  The  Cape  of 
Good  IIo{)e,  as  well  as  many  islands  in  the  West  Indies, 
are  famous  for  hurricane^:. 


96  ENGi.rsn  gram  mar,  §  04. 

§54.     Rule  VII.  I.   When  a  collective  iioim  con 
veys  the  idea  of  unityj  its  verb  must  be  singular ; 
as,  Tho  class  was  large. 

2.  When  a  collective  7iovn  conveys  the  idea  of 
plurality,  its  verb  must  be  plural ;  as,  My  people 
do  not  consider.     They  liave  not  known  me. 

Rem. — ^Pronouns  referring  to  collective  nouns  must  in  jilte  manner  be  singular 
or  plural,  according  as  the  idea  of  unity  or  pJnrality  is  expressed. 

EXERCISES. 

Stephen's  party  were  entirely  broken  tip.  The  meet- 
ing were  well  attended.  The  people  has  no  opinion  of 
its  own.  Send  the  multitude  away,  tliat  it  may  go  and 
buy  itself  bread.  The  people  was  very  numerous.  A 
company  of  troops  were  despatched  to  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river.  The  people  rejoices  in  what  should  give 
them  sorrow.  The  multitude  eagerly  pursues  pleasure 
as  its  chief  good.  In  France,  the  peasantry  goes  bare- 
foot, while  the  middle  sort  makes  use  of  wooden  shoes. 
The  British  parliament  are  composed  of  king,  lords,  and 
commons.  The  fleet  is  all  arrived  and  moored  in  safety. 
The  flock,  and  not  the  fleece,  are,  or  ought  to  be,  the 
object  of  the  shepherd's  care.  When  the  nation  com- 
plain,  the  rulers  should  listen  to  their  voice.  The  regi- 
ment consist  of  a  thousand  men.  Never  were  any  na- 
tion so  infatuated.  But  this  people  who  knoweth  not 
the  law  is  cursed.  The  shoal  of  herrings  were  immense. 
Why  Jo  this  generation  seek  after  a  sign  ?  The  fleet 
were  seen  sailing  up  the  channel.  Mankind  is  more 
united  by  the  bonds  of  friendship  at  present  than  it  was 
formerly.  Part  of  the  coin  were  preserved.  The  royal 
society  are  numerous  and  flourishing.  "  The  lowing 
herd  wind  slowly  round  the  lea."  The  noble  army  of 
martyrs  praiseth  thee,  O  God  !  The  present  generation 
possess  far  greater  advantages  than  the  preceding  genera- 
tion of  men ;  they  are  more  enlightened,  and  they  ought 
to  be  more  wise  and  virtuous.  A  great  number  of  wo- 
men were  present.  The  audience  takes  this  in  good  part. 
All  mankind  composes  one  family.  The  public  is  re- 
spectfully informed. 


^  55.  sTiVTAX.  y7 

§  55.  Rule  VIII,  1.  Every  adjective  qualifies  a 
substantive  expressed  or  understood;  as,  A.  good 
boy. 

2.  Adjectives  denoting  one,  must  have  nouns  in  the 
singular ;  those  denoting  more  than  one,  must  have 
nouns  in  the  plural;  as,  This  man,  these  men,  six/eet. 

Obs.  Adjectives  shonlci  not  bo  used  as  adverbs.  The  distinction 
18,  adjectives  qualify  nouns ;  adverbs  nwdify  verbs  adjectives  and 
other  adverbs ;  thus,  "  He  ia  miserable  poor,"  should  be, "  lie  is  jniser- 
ahhj  ■poor. 

Remark  1.  A^ectives  of  nnmher  may  he  denominated  stngvlar  or  plural, 
according  as  in  tlieir  signification  they  refer  to  one,  or  more  than  one. 

Rem.  ~.  Adjectives  joined  witli  the  sing^nlar,  are  the  ordinal  numbers,  first,  se- 
cond, last,  &c  ;  one,  each,  every,  either,  neither,  mucli,  with  its  comparative 
more,  enough,  whole  :  sec  §  18,  2,  Obs.  1. 

Still  it  is  correct  to  say,  the  first  foivr  lines;  the  lar<t  six  verses ;  c\'ory  twelve 
year.s,  &c.,  because  the  things  spoken  of  are  considered  as  one  agijregatc,  viz.  as 
the  first  portion  consisting  of  four  lines.     Everj'  jrcrinrl  of  twelve  years,  &c. 

Rem.  3.  Adjectives  joined  with  titeplural  only,  a:ro  all  cardinal  numbers  alxjTc 
one,  the  words  few,  many,  with  its  comparative  more,  both,  several,  enow. 
JUamj  is  som«,tiuus  construed  with  a  singular  noun  ;  as,  "  Full  many  a  flower,"  Ice. 

Rem.  4.  The  adjectives,  all,  no,  some,  other  may  be  joined  with  a  sinjinlar  or 
plural  noun  according  to  the  sense. 

Rem.  5.  "This  here,"  "  that  there,"  for  t/lz3  and  that;  and  "  them,"  "  thcai 
there,"  for  these  arwJ  those,  arre  vulg'arisms. 

Rem.  G.  Tliis  means  and  that  mtans  refer  to  one  easse ;  these  means,  those 
means,  to  more  than  oiie,  ij  10,  5  Note.  Amends  is  used  in  the  same  way  a» 
meang, 

EXERCISES. 
This  boys  are  diligent.  I  have  not  seen  him  this  ten 
days.  Those  sort  of  people  tear  nothing.  Tiiese  soldiers 
are  remarkable  tall.  They  behaved  the  noblest.  It  is 
uncommon  good .  Them  books  are  ahnost  new.  Give 
me  that  there  knife.  These  kind  of  favours  did  real  in- 
jury. There  is  si.\  foot  water  in  the  hold.  I  have  no 
interests  but  that  of  truth  and  virtue.  You  will  find  the 
remark  in  the  second  or  third  pages.  Charles  was  ex- 
travagant, and  by  those  means  became  poor.  The  scholars 
were  attentive  and  industrious,  and  by  that  means  ac- 
quired  knowledge.  .  Let  each  esteem  others  l)etter  tlian 
themselves.  Every  person,  whatever  be  their  station, 
are  bound  by  the  laws  of  morality  and  religion.  Aro 
either  of  these  men  your  friend  ? 
10 


98  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  5H. 

§  5(i.  RuLi:  IX.  \Vhe7i  tiro  'persons  or  thin^^s 
are  contrasted.,  that  reters  to  the  first  mentioncJ, 
and  this  to  the  last ;  as,  Virtue  and  vice  are  as  op- 
posite to  each  other  as  hght  and  darkness  ;  that 
enobles  the  mind,  this  debases  it. 

Remark.  Former  and  latter,  ove  and  oHier,  arc  often  used  instead  i>{  tkit  M'kI 
this.  Former  and  latter  are  alike  in  lioth  luiiiiliers;  one  aiid  other  r'.fc-r  U)  llie 
singular  only.  7'Aat  and  thif,  as  applied  under  this  rule,  are  seldom  applied  to 
persons;  hul former  and  latter  are  applied  to  persons  or  thin:;s  indiscriminately. 
In  most  cases  the  rci)ctiti<iu  ol'  the  noun  is  prclernhle  t<i  either  of  them. 

Obs.  Hcticc  in  the  use  of  the  dnnonslratives  when  no  contrast  is  expressed, 
"  this"  and  "  these"  refer  to  thin-is  presejd  or  just  mentioned ;  "  that"  and 
"  those"  to  things  distant  or  formerly  mentioned.  Thus,  "  they  cannot  be  sepa 
rated  from  the  subject,  and  for  that  reason,"  &c.  should  he,  "  and  for  this  rca 
son,"  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

Wealth  and  poverty  are  lx>th  temptations  to  man;  this 
tends  to  excite  pride, that  discontentment.  Religion  rai. 
ses  men  ahove  themselves,  irreligion  sinks  them  beneath 
the  brutes  ;  that  binds  them  down  to  a  poor  pitiable  speck 
of  perishable  earth,  this  opens  for  them  a  prospect  to  the 
skies.  Rex  and  Tyrannus  arc  of  very  different  charac- 
ters ;  that  rules  his  people  by  laws  to  which  they  con- 
sent,  this  by  his  absolute  will  and  power  ;  this  is  called 
freedom,  that  tyranny.  More  rain  falls  in  the  first  two 
summer  months  than  in  the  first  two  winter  ones;  but  it 
makes  a  iimch  greater  shew  in  the  one  than  in  the  other, 
because  there  is  a  much  slower  evaporation.  Health  is 
more  valuable  than  great  possessions,  and  yet  the  latter 
is  often  sacriliced  in  the  pursuit  of  the  former.  Exercise 
and  temperance  are  the  best  promoters  of  health  :  that 
prevents  disease  ;  this  often  dissipates  it. 

Self-love,  the  spring  of  motion,  moves  the  soul ; 
Reasoii'd  comparing  balance  rules  the  whole: 
Man,  but  for  this,  no  action  could  attend ; 
Man,  but  for  that,  were  active  to  no  end. 

(Ex.  on  Obs.)  That  very  subjeqt  which  we  are  now 
discussing,  is  still  involved  in  mystery.  This  vessel  of 
which  you  spoke  yesterday,  sailed  for  the  West  Indies 
this  morninir  at  1 0  o'clock. 


§  57.  SYNTAX  90 

§  57.  Rule  X.  L.  Pronouns  agree  uith  the 
nouns  for  ivhich  they  stand,  in  gender,  number, 
and  person  ;  as,  John  is  here  ;  he  came  an  hour 
ago.     Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit. 

2.  When  a  pronoun  refers  to  two  words  of  dif- 
ferent persons  connected  by  a  copulative  conjunc- 
tion, it  becomes  plurcd,  and  prefers  the  first  person 
to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third  ;  as,  John 
and  I  will  do  our  duty. 

Remark.  1.     For  an  esception  to  this  rule,  sec  ^  15,  4. 

Rem.  2.  The  word  containing  the  answer  to  a  question  must  be  in  the  same 
case  with  the  word  that  asks  it ;  as,  Wiio  said  tliat  ?  I  (said  it.)  Whose  books 
are  these  1    John's. 

Rem.  3.  It  is  improper,  in  the  progress  of  a  sentence,  to  express  the  same  ob- 
ject by  pronouns  of  different  numbers  or  genders ;  as,  I  laboured  long  to  make 
thee  happy,  and  now  you  reward  me  by  ingratitude.  It  should  be  either,  "  to 
make  you  happy,  or,  tliou  rewardest." 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Answer  not  a  fool  according  to  her  folly.  A  stone 
is  heavy,  and  the  sand  weighty,  but  a  fool's  wrath  is 
heavier  than  it  both.  Take  handfuls  of  ashes  of  the  fur- 
nace,  and  let  Moses  sprinkle  it  towards  heaven  in  the  sight 
of  Pharaoh;  and  it  shall  beconne  small  dust.  The  crown 
had  it  in  their  power  to  give  such  rewards  as  they  thought 
proper.  The  fruit  tree  beareth  fruit  after  his  kind.  Re- 
becca took  goodly  raiment  and  put  thcin  upon  Jacob. 

2.  Thou  and  he  shared  it  between  them.  James  and 
I  are  attentive  to  tlieir  studies.  You  and  he  are  dili- 
gent in  reading  their  books  ;  therefore  they  are  good  boys. 

(Reuj.  2.)  Who  betrayed  her  companion?  Not  me. 
Who  revealed  the  secrets  he  ought  to  have  concealed  ? 
Not  him  ;  it  was  her.  Whom  did  you  meet  ?  He  and 
his  brother.  Whose  pen  is  that  ?  Mine's.  Who  bought 
that  book  ?     Him. 

(Rem.  3.)  Virtue  forces  her  way  through  obscurity, 
and  sooner  or  later  it  is  sure  to  be  rewarded.  Thou  hast 
ever  shewn  thyself  my  real  friend,  and  your  kindness  to 
me  I  can  never  forget 

You  draw  the  inspiring  breath  of  ancient  song, 

Till  nobly  rises  einalous  thy  own. 

Thou,  goddess— mother,  with  our  sire  comply  ; 

If  you  submit,  the  thundcrcr  stands  appeased. 


100  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  ^  H^ 

§  58.  Rule  XI.  The  relative  agrees  icilh  it.s  an- 
tecedc7it  in  number  and  person,  and  the  verb  agrees 
with  it  accordingly  ;  as,  Thou  who  speakest.  The 
book  which  was  lost. 

See  observations  on  the  relative  and  interrogative,  §  16  &  17. 

Remark  1.  The  antecedent,  or  that  to  which  the  relative  refers,  may  be  a  noun, 
or  pronoun,  or  clause  of  a  sentence. 

Rem.  2.  IVho  is  applied  to  persons,  or  things  personified  ;  which,  to  all  other 
objects, — sometimes  to  children — to  collective  nouns  composed  of  persons,  when 
unity  is  expressed  ;  and  also  to  persons  in  asking  questions.     ($  17,  Obs  I,  2,4.) 

Rem.  3.  The  relative  that  is  used  instead  of  who  or  which  ; — 

1.  After  adjectives  in  the  superlative  degree, — after  the  words  game  and  all, — 
and  often  after  no,  some,  and  any. 

2.  When  the  antecedent  includes  both  persons  and  things ;  as,  The  man  and 
the  horse  that  we  saw  yesterday. 

3.  After  the  interrogative  who;  and  often  after  the  personal  pronouns;  as, 
Who  that  has  any  sense  of  religion,  would  have  argued  thus  T  I  that  speak  in 
righteousness. 

EXERCISES. 

1  &  2.  Thosewhich  seek  wisdom,  will  certainly  find 
her.  This  is  the  friend  which  I  love.  Tliat  is  the  vice 
whom  I  hate.  This  moon  who  rose  last  night  had  not 
yet  filled  her  horns.  Blessed  is  the  man  which  walketh 
in  wisdom's  ways.  Thou  who  has  been  a  witness  of  the 
fact,  can  give  an  account  of  it.  I  am  happy  in  the  friend 
which  I  have  long  proved.  The  court  who  gives  cur- 
rency  to  manners,  ought  to  be  exemplary.  The  tiger  is 
a  beast  of  prey,  who  destroys  without  pity.  Who  of 
these  men  came  to  his  assistance  ?  The  child  whom  I 
saw,  is  dead. 

A  train  of  heroes  followed  through  the  field, 
Which  bore  by  turns  great  Ajax's  sev'nfold  shield. 

3.  It  is  the  best  which  can  be  got.  Solomon  was  the 
wisest  man  whom  ever  the  world  saw.  It  is  the  same 
picture  which  you  saw  before.  "  And  all  which  beauty, 
all  which  wealth  e'er  gave,  await  alike  the  inevitable 
hour."  The  lady  and  lapdog  which  we  saw  at  the  win- 
dow, have  disappeared.  The  men  and  things  which  he 
has  studied,  have  not  contributed  to  the  improvement  of 
his  morals.  I  who  speak  unto  thee,  am  he.  Sidney  was 
one  of  the  wisest  and  most  active  governors  which  Ire- 
land had  enjoyed  for  several  years.  He  has  committed 
the  same  fault  which  I  condemned  yesterday. 


§  59.  SYNTAX.  101 

Rule  XI.    Continued. 
^  59.  Special  rules  a>u  observations. 

Rule  [.  The  relative,  Kith  its  clause,  should  be  placed  as  near  as  pos- 
sible to  its  antecedent,  lo  prevent  ambi^iity  ;  thus,  "The  boy  beat  his 
companion,  whom  every  body  believed  incapable  of  doing  miscliief," 
should  be,  "  The  boy,  wlioni  every  body  believed  incapable  of  doin" 
mischief,  beat  his  companion."     Hence, 

Rule  n.  When  the  relative  is  preceded  by  tico  words  refenin^  to 
the  same  thing,  its  proper  antecedent  is  the  one  next  il ;  as,  Thou  art  the 
man  ^cho  xvas  engaged  in  tliat  business. 

Obsercatian.  The  relative  is  sometimes  in  such  sentonres  made  to  afiree  in»- 
properly  wth  the  first ;  "  /  am  a  man  who  am  a  Jew."  Thi.^  sentence,  acconl- 
aig  to  it3  construction,  should  be  arranged  thus ;  I,  who  am  a  Jew,  am  a  mun. 
In  such  sentences  care  should  always  l>e  taken  to  ascertain  to  which  word  the 
relative  and  its  clause  belongs,  and  to  arrange  the  sentence  accordingly.  In  tliis, 
the  sense  is  the  only  guide. 

Rule  III.  The  antecedent,  if  a  pronoun  of  the  third  person,  is  often 
■understood  when  no  emphasis  is  implied,  and  is  alicays  included  in  thi 
compound  7-elatives,  whoever,  whosoever,  &.c.  (§  16,  Obs.  3.) 

Observation.  The  relative  is  sometimes  understood,  especially  in  colloquial 
language;  as,  "The  friend  I  visited  yesterday,  is  dead  to-day,"  for  "The  fricod 
whom  I  visited,"  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

I.  The  king  dismissed  his  minister,  without  any  inquiry, 
who  had  never  before  committed  so  unjust  an  action.  The 
soldier  with  a  single  companion,  who  passed  for  the  bravest 
man  in  the  regiment,  offered  his  services.  Thou  art  a 
friend  indeed,  who  hast  relieved  me  in  this  dangerous  cri- 
.sis. 

II.  Thou  art  the  friend  that  hast  often  relieved  me,  and 
that  hast  not  deserted  me  now  in  the  time  of  peculiar  need. 
I  am  the  man  who  command  you.  I  am  the  person  who 
adopt  that  sentiment,  and  maintains  it.  Thou  art  he  who 
driedst  up  the  Red  Sea  before  thy  people  Israel. 

III.  He  whoever  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash.  Tho.se 
whom  he  would,  he  slew  ;  and  those  whom  he  would  he 
kept  alive.  The  man  whosoever  coramitteth  sin,  is  the 
sers'ant  of  sin.  To  them  whomsoever  he  saw  in  distress, 
he  imparted  relief. 

10* 


102  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  6U 

§  60.  Rule  XII.  Substantives  denoting  the  same 
person  or  thing,  agree  in  case  ;  as,  Cicero  the  Ora- 
tor. 

Words  thus  used  are  said  to  be  in  apposition. 

Hem.  1.  Two  or  more  nouns,  forming  one  complex  name,  or  a  name  and  a  ti- 
tle, with  the  definite  article  and  a  numeral  adjective  prefixed,  have  the  plural  ter- 
ininalion  annexed  to  thi;  last  only;  as,  the  two  Mi=3  Hays.  The  three  Mi>-i< 
firowyis.    Tlie  two  Dr.  Monroes.     Of  married  laxlies,  the  name  only  is  plurali/.ed. 

Rem.  2.  But  when  used  without  the  numeral,  the  plural  termination  is  annex 
cd  to  the_^rs(;  as,  J^cssr.*.  Thompson.     Jtfjs^cs  Hamilton. — ^  10,  1. 

Obs.  Tlie  word  containing  the  answer  to  a  question,  bein?  in  the  same  con 
struction  with  the  word  that  asks  it,  must  always  be  in  the  same  case ;  as,  Ot 
whom  were  the  books  bought  7    Of  .Johnson,  him  who  lives  in  the  Strand. 

EXERCISES. 

The  chief  of  the  princes,  him  who  defied  the  bravest  of 
the  enemy,  was  assassinated  by  a  dastardly  villain.  He 
was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  West,  he  who  published  Pin- 
dar at  O.xford. 

{Rem.  1,  2.)  The  two  Misses  Louisa  Howard  are  very 
amiable  young  ladies.  The  two  Messrs.  Websters  left 
town  yesterday.  The  two  Messrs.  Websters  will  return 
to-morrow.  The  Doctors  Stevensons  have  been  success- 
ful in  performing  a  very  difficult  operation.  The  two  Doc- 
tors Ramsays  have  returned.  The  Mrs.  Townsend  were 
there,  as  well  as  the  Mrs.  Bay. 

(Obs.)  Of  whom  were  the  articles  bought?  Of  a  gro- 
cer, he  who  resides  near  the  Mansion-House.  Was  any 
person  besides  the  grocer  present  ?  Yes,  both  him  and  his 
clerk  were  present.  Who  was  the  money  paid  to  1  To 
the  grocer.  Who  counted  it  1  Both  the  clerk  and  him. 
Who  said  that  ?  IMe.  Whose  books  are  these  ?  Her 
who  went  out  a  few  minutes  ago. 

PROMISCUOUS    EXERCISES    ON    THE    rRECEDIXG    RULES. 

Two  and  two  makes  four.  Dew  and  hoar  frost  is  more 
copious  in  valleys  than  it  is  in  elevated  situations.  Either 
his  gratitude  or  his  compassion  were  roused.  Neither  he 
nor  I  intends  to  write  on  that  subject.  In  the  human  spe- 
cies the  influence  of  instinct  and  habit  are  generally  assisted 
by  the  suggestions  of  reason.  Thomas  said  that  James 
and  me  might  go.  Godliness,  with  contentment,  are  great 
gain.  Either  avarice,  or  the  cares  of  tliis  life,  has  misled 
aim. 


{'  61.  SYNTAX.  103 

§  61.  Rule  XIII.  A  verb  may  have  the  same 
case  after  it  as  before  it,  ivhcu  both  words  refer  to 
the  same  thing ;  as,  It  is  I.     I  took  it  to  be  him. 

Rem.  J.  Verbs  liaving  the  same  case  after  tliciri  as  before  them,  are  chiefly  Uic 
vsrb  "to  be,"  "to  become,"  and  some  other  intr.  verbs,  and  passive  verba  ot 
Xiaml.ig,  clioosing,  appointing,  and  the  like;  as,  He  sliall  be  called  John.  He  be- 
came the  slave  of  irregular  passions.  Stephen  died  a  J\fnrtijr.  In  these  examples, 
the  case  of  the  subject  determines  the  case  of  the  predicate  according  to  the  rule 
But, 

Rem.  2.  In  substantive  phrases  the  infinitive  or  participle  of  an  intr.  verb 
without  a  subject  is  followed  by  a  substantive  or  adjective  taken  indeflnitoly, 
and  the  substamfve  is  in  the  objective  case ;  (^  -40.  R.  23.  Obs.  2.)  as,  "  To  be  tJie 
stave  of  p.ission,  is  of  all  slavery  the  most  wretched."  "  His  dijinir  inttstatc  caused 
all  this  trouble."  "  It  is  our  duty  to  be  obedipnt  to  our  parents." 

Rem.  3.  In  English  almost  any  verb  may  be  used  as  a  copula  between  its  sub- 
ject and  an  adjective  as  a  part,  or  at  least  as  a  modification  of  the  predicate  ; 
as,  "  It  tastes  good,"  "The  wind  blows  hard,"  "  I  remember  right,"  "  He  feels 
sick,"  "  He  strikes  hard,"  "  He  drinks  deep,"  &c.  In  such  expressions  Uic  ad- 
jective so  much  resembles  an  adverb  in  its  meaning,  that  they  are  usually  parsed 
as  such.  This,  however,  is  so  common  a  phraseology  in  our  language,  and  espe- 
cially in  poetry,  that  they  should  rather  be  considered  as  adjectives  in  fact  as 
well  as  in  form,  though  used  in  a  way  somewhat  peculiar.  Those  expressions 
seem  to  be  analogous  to  the  Latin  "  iusons  feci,"  "  I  did  it  innocently ; "  "  accur 
runt  li?ti,"  •'  They  run  upjojr/itZ/y."  Or  the  Greek  afUtro  Jstirspoio  j,  he  carae 
on  the  second  day. 

EXERCISES. 

It  was  me  who  wrote  the  letter.  Be  not  afraid,  it  is  me 
I  am  certain  that  it  could  not  have  been  her.  It  is  them 
that  deserve  most  blame.  You  would  undoubtedly  act  the 
same  part  if  you  were  him.  I  understood  it  to  be  he.  It 
may  have  been  him,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  it.  It  may 
have  been  him  or  them  who  did  it. 

Who  do  you  think  him  to  be  ?  Whom  do  men  say  that 
I  am  ]  She  is  the  person  who  I  understood  it  to  have  been. 
Let  him  be  whom  lie  may,  I  am  not  afraid  of  him.  Was 
it  me  that  said  so  ?  It  is  impossible  to  be  them.  I  arn 
certain  it  was  not  him. 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES. 

Surely  thou  who  reads  so  much  in  the  Bible,  can  tell  me 
what  became  of  Elijah.  Neither  the  master  nor  the  .schol- 
ars  is  reading.  Trust  not  him,  whom,  you  know,  is  disho- 
nest.    I  love  no  interests  but  that  of  truth  and  virtue. 


104  ExNGLISir    GRAMMAR.  §  62. 

§62.  RulkXIV.  Wheiitioo  nouns  come  together, 
denoting  the  possessor  and  the  thing  possessed,  the 
Jirst  is  put  in  the  possessive  case ;  as,  John's  book  ; 
on  eagle's  wino-s. 

Observation.  The  latter  or  governing  subatantive  \s  frequently  unili;rijlood ;  as , 
I  found  liini  at  the  stationer's,  (viz.  sliop  or  house.) 

5)5"  For  observations  on  tlie  possessive  pronoun,  sec  $  18,  1,  Obs.  1. 

Hemarh  1.  Tlic  preposition  of,  with  the  objective,  is  generally  equivalent  te 
the  possessive  case,  and  is  often  used  in  preferenoe  to  it.  Thus,  "  In  the  name  of 
Ihe  army,"  is  bet'er  than  "  In  the  army's  name."  Sometimes,  however,  the.se 
two  modes  of  expression  are  not  eipiivalcnt ;  thus,  "  The  Lord's  day,"  and 
"Tiie  day  of  tlie  Lord,"  convey  ideus  entirely  different.     ^  12,  3. 

Rem.  2.  Pometimes  "  o/"  1;=  used  before  the  possessive  governing  a  substantive 
understood  after  it ;  as,  This  i.s  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's.  Cviz.  discov- 
eries.) "Tliis  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton."  expresses  the  same  idea. 
Tlicse  two  modes  of  e.';prcssion,  however,  sometimes  convey  quite  dirfereiil  ideas ; 
thus,  "  A  picture  of  my  friend,"  means  a  portrait  of  him.  "  A  picture  of  my 
friend's,"  means  a  picture  belonging  to  him.  Under  both  these  remarks  it  may 
be  observed  as  a  general 

Rule.  In  Ihe  use  of  the  possessive,  or  of  its  equivale^it,  "of,"  with 
the  objective,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  harshness  on  the  one  hand 
and  ambiguity  on  the  other. 

EXERCISES. 

It  is  Pompeys  pillar.  Seek  Virtues  reward.  A  mans 
manners  frequently  influence  his  fortune.  My  ancestors 
virtue  is  not  mine.  Asa  his  heart  was  perfect  with  the 
Lord.  A  mothers  tenderness  and  a  father's  care  are  na- 
tures gifts  for  mans  advantage.  Helen  her  beauty  was  ihe 
cause  of  Troy  its  destruction.  Longinus  his  treatise  on 
the  sublime.     Christ  his  sake. 

(Rem.  1,  2.)  The  Commons  vote  was  decidedly  against 
the  measure.  The  Lord's  house  adjourned  at  a  late  hour. 
The  Representative's  house  convened  at  12  o'clock.  He 
married  my  daughter's  husbands  sister.  She  married  the 
brother  of  the  wife  of  my  son.  The  Lord's  day  will  come 
as  a  thief  in  the  night.  The  next  day  of  the  Lord  came 
all  the  people  to  hear  the  word.  That  is  a  good  likeness 
of  De  Witt  Clinton's.  He  is  the  only  son  of  his  mother's. 
The  court's  decision.  I  beg  the  favour  of  your  acceptance 
of  a  copy  of  a  view  of  the  manufactories  of  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire.  The  report  of  the  sickness  of  the  son  of 
the  king  of  England,  e.xcited  the  nation's  fears. 


i  ^3.  SYNTAX.  106 

§  63.     Observations  on  Rule  XIV. 

1.  When  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  possessive  case,  im- 
plying  common  possession,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  {'s)  is  anne.iod 
lo  the  last,  and  understood  to  the  rest;  as,  "Jane  and  Lucy's  books."' 
i.  e.  books  the  common  property  of  Jane  and  Lucy.  But  if  common 
possession  is  not  implied,  or  if  several  words  intervene,  the  sign  of  the 
possessive  should  be  annexed  to  each ;  as,  "Jane's  and  Lucy's  bookn," 
i.  e.  books,  some  of  which  are  Jane's  and  others  Lucy's.  "  Tiiis 
gained  the  king's,  as  well  as  the  people's  approbation." 

•2.  When  a  name  is  complex,  consisting  of  more  terms  than  one,  the 
sign  of  the  possessive  is  annexed  to  the  last  only  ;  as,  "Julius  Cjesar'a 
Commentaries."  "  John  the  Baptist's  head."  "  His  brother  Philip's 
wile."     "The  Bishop  of  London's  charge." 

3.  When  a  short  explanatory  term  is  joined  to  a  name,  llie  sign  of 
the  possessive  may  be  annexed  to  cither  ;  as,  I  called  at  Smith's  the 
bookseller,  or,  at  Smith  the  bookseller's.  But  if,  to  such  a  phrase,  tlie 
governing  substantive  is  added,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  must  be  an- 
nexed to  the  last ;  as,  "I  called  at  Smith  thebook  seller's  shop." 

4.  If  the  explanatory  circumstance  be  complex,  or  consisting  of  more 
terms  than  one,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  must  be  annexed  to  the 
name  or  first  substantive ;  as,  "  This  Psalm  is  David's,  the  king,  priest, 
and  prophet  of  the  people"  "  That  book  is  Smitli's,  the  bookseller  in 
Maiden  Lane." 

5.  When  two  nouns  in  the  possessive  are  governed  by  different 
words,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  must  be  annexed  to  each  ;  as,  "  lie 
took  refuge  at  the  governor's,  the  king's  representative,"  i.  e.  at  tiic 
"  Governor's  house." 

6.  The  s  after  the  apostrophe  is  omitted,  when  the  first  noun  has 
the  sound  of  s  in  each  of  its  two  last  syllables,  and  the  second  noun 
begins  with  s;  as.  For  righteousness'  sake,  &c.  (§  12,  2.)  In  other 
cases,  such  omission  would  generally  be  improper ;  as,  James'  book, 
Miss'  shoes  ;  instead  of  James's  book.  Miss's  shoes. 

7.  A  clause  of  a  sentence  should  never  come  between  tiie  posses- 
sive case  and  the  word  by  which  it  is  governed  ;  thus,  "  She  brgan  to 
extol  the  farmer's,  as  she  called  him,  excellent  understanding,"  should 
be, — "  the  excellent  understanding  of  the  farmer,  ns  she  called  him." 

8.  The  possessive  t/j/io.'sesoeter  and  ihecoiupoumUv'hirhsoevrr,  whatso- 
ever, howsoever  are  sometimes  divided  by  interposini;  the  word  to  whicli 
they  belong ;  as,  wJtose  house  soever ;  what  man  sfxicr.  Tliis  in  gen- 
eral  however  is  to  be  avoided,  and  to  be  admitted  only  when  euphonj 
and  precision  are  thereby  promoted. 


106  ENGLISH    GHAMMAK.  §  fi9. 

Rule  XIV.   Continued. 
§  63.  Exercises  on  Observations. 

1.  William's  and  Mary's  reign.  This  is  your  father'a 
mother's  and  brother's  advice.  Peter's  John's  and  An- 
drew's occupation  was  that  of  fishermen.  lie  asked  his 
father,  as  well  as  his  mother's  advice.  John  and  Robert's 
boots  fit  them  very  well.  The  Betsey  and  the  Speedwell's 
cargoes  were  both  damaged. 

2.  Jack's  the  Giant  killer's  wonderful  exploits.  The 
Bishop's  of  Landatl"'s  excellent  work.  During  Charles's 
the  second's  reign.  The  Lord  Mayor's  of  London  author- 
ity.    That  carriage  is  the  Lord  Mayor's  of  London. 

3.  The  books  were  left  at  Brown's  the  bookseller's.  I 
left  him  at  Mayell's  the  hatter's  shop.  Thorburn's  the 
seedsman  store  is  now  open. 

4.  The  books  were  left  at  Brown  the  bookseller  and  sta- 
tioner's. I  left  the  parcel  at  Johnson,  a  respectable  book- 
seller,  a  worthy  man,  and  an  old  friend's.  I  reside  at 
Lord  Stormont,  my  old  patron  and  benefactor's.  Whose 
glory  did  he  emulate?  He  emulated  Csesar,  the  greatest 
general  of  antiquity's. 

^.  That  book  is  Thompson  the  Tutor's  assistant.  We 
spent  an  agreeable  hour  at  Wilson  the  Governor's  deputy, 
and  on  our  return  called  at  Mr.  Smith  little  Henry's  father. 

G.  James'  father  arrived  yesterday  and  Mr.  Spence'  ser- 
vant came  with  him.  Charles'  books  are  completely  spoiled. 
For  conscience's  sake  Miss'  books  have  been  sent  home. 

7.  They  very  justly  condemned  the  prodigal's,  as  he 
was  called,  senseless  and  extravagant  conduct.  This  is 
Paul's  the  christian  hero  and  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles 
advice.  Beyond  this  the  arts  cannot  be  traced  of  civil 
society. 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  ON  THIS  RULE. 

The  emperor  and  the  Dukes  cavalfy  were  engaged. 
This  is  for  consciences  sake.  Escape  Atrides  ire.  He 
bought  the  articles  at  Wilson's  the  druggist's.  William  and 
John's  wives  were  present.  The  estate  of  William's  was 
much  encumbered. 


^    64.  SYNTAX.  107 

^  64.  Rule  XV  When  the  present  participle  is 
used  as  a  noun,  (^  30,  7.)  a  noun  before  it  is  put  in 
the  possessive  case  ;  as,  Much  depends  on  the  pupil's 
composing  frequently. 

Obs.  A  pronoun  in  this  construction  must  be  the  possessive  pronoun,  not  iho 
possessive  case  ;  as,  Much  depends  on  your  composing,  &c.,  not  yours  composing. 

Jlemark  1.  If  not  used  as  a  noun,  the  noun  or  pronoun  l)el"ore  it  may  be  in  any 
case  wliicli  the  construction  requires;  as,  1  see  men  walking.  Tlicsi;  two  niudiis 
of  expression,  in  many  cases,  convey  very  different  ideas,  and  tlierclbre  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  confound  them  ;  th\is,  "  What  do  you  tliink  of  my  korsr  running 
to-day  ?"  means,  Do  you  think  1  sliould  let  him  run  1  Hut,  "  VVIiat  do  you  think 
of  my  horse's  running  to-day?"  means,  he  has  run,  do  you  think  hi;  ran  well  ? 

Rem.  2.  The  present  participle,  with  a  possessive  before  it,  sometimes  admi'3 
of  after  it,  and  sometimes  not. 

Rem.  3.  When  a  preposition  follows  the  participle,  of  is  inadmissable :  as.  Ilia 
depending  on  promises,  proved  his  ruin.  His  neglecting  to  study  when  young, 
rendered  him  ignorant  all  liis  life 

EXERCISES. 

What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  dismissing  his  ser- 
vant so  hastily?  I  I'emembor  it  bein<i  clone.  This  jea- 
lousy  accounts  for  Hall  charging  the  Duke  of  Gloucester 
with  the  murder  of  Prince  Edward.  He  beinf^  a  preat 
man  did  not  make  him  a  happy  man.  Mucli  depends  on 
the  rule  being  observed.  Richard  observing  tlie  rule  will 
be  the  means  of  him  avoiding  error.  What  do  you  think 
of  my  horse  running  to-day?  did  he  run  well? 

(Rem.  1.)  Tiiat  man's  running  so  fast,  is  in  danger  of 
falling.  A  youth's  pursuing  his  studies  with  ddigence 
and  perseverance,  can  hardly  fail  of  success.  What  do 
you  think  of  my  horse's  running  to-day  ?  will  it  be  .safe  ? 

(Rem.  2.)  Our  approving  their  bad  conduct  may  en- 
courage  them  to  become  worse.  For  his  avoiding  that 
precipice  he  is  indebted  to  his  friend's  care.  Their  ob- 
serving  the  rules  prevented  errors.  By  his  studying  of 
i  the  scriptures  he  became  wise.  Their  condemning  of 
)  the  innocent  and  acquitting  of  the  guilty  will  cover  thcin 
with  infamy.  Heraldry  teaches  the  knowhulge  of  thu.M! 
marks  of  honour  called  coats  of  arms,  and  the  method  of 
blazoning  of  them  and  marshalling  of  them  :  blazoning 
signifies  the  displaying  the  several  emblems  and  colours 
of  an  achievement  in  proper  terms ;  marsihulling,  is  the 
joining  divers  arms  in  one  shield. 


108  ENGLISH    GRAMMAS.  §  65. 

§  65.  Rule.  XVI.  When  the  present  participle, 
used  as  a  noun,  has  an  article  before  it,  it  should 
have  the  preposition  of,  after  it  ;  as,  In  the  keeping 
of  his  commandments  tliere  is  a  great  reward. 

Remark  1.  The  sense  will  often  be  the  same  if  both  the  article  and  the  preposi- 
tion lie  omitted:  but  the  one  should  nut  be  omitted  without  the  other:  thus,  In 
keeping  his  commandments,  &.c.  When  a  possessive  case  or  a  possessive  pro- 
noun precedes,  of  usually  follows.    See  ^6-1,  Rem.  2. 

Rem.  2.  In  some  cases,  however,  these  two  modes  express  very  different  ideas, 
and  therefore  attention  to  the  sense  is  necessary  ;  as.  He  confessed  the  wliole  in 
the  hearing  of  three  witnesses,  and  the  court  spent  an  iiour  in  hearing  their  de 
position. 

To  prevent  ambiguity  in  such  cases,  it  might  be  well  to  observe  the  following 

Rule. — When  the  participle  expresses  something  of  which  the  noun 
following  is  the  doer,  it  should  have  the  article  and  preposition ;  as,  "It 
was  said  in  the  hearing  of  the  witness."  When  it  expresses  something 
of  which  the  noun  following  is  not  the  doer  but  the  object,  both  should  be 
omitted  /  as,  the  Court  spent  some  time  in  hearing  the  witness.* 

EXERCISES. 

Learning  of  languages  is  very  difficult.  The  learning 
any  thing  speedily,  requires  great  application.  By  the 
exercising  our  faculties,  they  are  improved.  By  observ. 
ing  of  these  rules,  you  will  avoid  mistakes.  By  the  ob- 
taining  wisdom,  thou  wilt  command  esteem.  This  was  a 
betraying  the  trust  reposed  in  him.  The  not  attending  to 
this  rule,  is  the  cause  of  a  very  common  error.  He  con- 
fined  all  his  philosophy  to  the  suffering  ills  patiently. 
This  order  so  critically  given,  occasioned  the  gaining  the 
battle.  This  was,  in  fact,  converting  the  deposites  to 
his  own  use.  Propriety  of  pronunciation  is  the  giving 
to  every  word  that  sound,  which  the  most  polite  usage  of 
the  language  appropriates  to  it. 

(Rem.  2.)  At  hearing  the  ear  they  shall  obey.  Be 
cause  of  provoking  his  sons  and  daughters,  the  Lord  ab- 
horred them.  He  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had  in  the 
hearing  of  the  philosopher.  In  the  hearing  of  the  will 
read,  and  in  the  examining  of  sundry  papers,  much  time 
was  spent. 

*  For  the  participle  in  mg  used  abeolutely,  aee  $  60,  Obs.  3. 


§  66.  SYNTAX.  109 

§  66.  Rule  XVII.  The  perfect  participle,  and 
not  the  imperfect  tense,  should  be  used  after  the  verbs 
u\.VKandBK]  as,  I  have  z^ri^/en,  (not  wrote.)  lam 
chosen. 

Remark  1.  The  perfect  participle  should  not  be  used  instead  of  the  imperfect 
toiise  :  Thus  it  is  improper  to  say  "  he  begun,"  for  "  he  began,  "  he  run,"  for 
"  lie  ran,"  "  he  done,"  for  "  lie  did :  "  "  he  seen,"  for  "  he  saw." 

Rem  2.  The  present  participle  active,  and  not  the  perfect,  is  used  after  the  verb 
to  be.  to  express  the  continued  suffering  of  an  action ;  as,  "  The  house  is  build- 
in^;."  not  "  being  built."  When  the  participle  in  -ing  lias  not  a  pas.si  ve  sense,  the 
idea  must  be  e.xpressed  by  means  of  the  active  voice.  Thus  we  do  not  say  "  the 
book  is  now  reading"  (nor  "  the  book  is  now  being  read,")  but  "he  (orsbe,  &c.) 
is  now  reading  the  book."    See  $  30  and  31 

EXERCISES, 
I  would  have  wrote  a  letter.  He  had  mistook  his  true 
interest.  The  coat  had  no  seam,  but  was  wove  througnout. 
The  French  language  is  spoke  in  every  part  of  Europe. 
His  resolution  was  too  strong  to  be  shook  by  slight  opposi- 
tion. The  horse  -was  stole  from  the  pasture.  They  have 
chose  the  part  of  honour  and  virtue.  She  was  shewed  into 
the  drawing  room.  He  has  broke  the  bottle.  Some  fell 
bv  the  way  side  and  was  trode  down.  The  work  was  very 
well  execute.  Philosophers  have  often  mistook  the  true 
source  of  happiness.  He  has  chose  to  ride.  He  drunk 
too  much.  I  am  almost  froze.  He  has  forsook  us.  The 
desk  was  shook.     It  was  well  wrote. 

1.  By  too  eager  pursuit  he  run  a  great  risk  of  being  dis- 
appointed. He  soon  begun  to  weary  of  having  nothing  to 
do.  He  was  greatly  heated,  and  drunk  with  avidity.  The 
bending  hermit  here  a  prayer  begun.  And  end  with  sor- 
rows as  they  first  begun. 

A  second  dolnm'  liarning  thus  o'er-riin, 

And  the  Monks  finished  what  the  Goths  begun. 

These  men  done  more  than  could  have  been  expected. 
There  can  be  no  mistake,  for  I  seen  them  do  it. 

2.  The  work  was  then  being  printed,  and  it  was  expected 
to  be  pubHshed  in  a  few  days.  That  house  has  been  being 
built  for  six  months  ;  it  is  now  being  plastered,  and  will  be 
finished  soon.  He  is  now  being  shaved  at  the  barber's  shop. 
A  place  is  now  being  prepared  for  us.  The  world  was  then 
circumnavigating  by  Captain  Cook. 

11 


no  ENGLISH    GKAMMAn.  §  ^7 

§  67.  Rule  XVIII.  1.  0)ie  verb  governs  another 
in  the  infinitive  mood ;  as,  I  desire  to  lenrn. 

2.  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinifive,  is  7iot  used  after 
the  verbs  bid,  dare,  need,  make,  see,  hear,  feel,  and 
let,  in  the  active  voice,  nor  after  let,  iu  the  passive. 

Also  sometimes  after  perceive,  behold,  observe, 
have,  and  know. 

Remark  1.  The  infinitive  after  a  verb  is  govenied  by  it  only  when  tlie  attribute 
expressed  liy  the  infinitive  is  eitlicr  tlie  subject  or  oliject  of  the  other  verb.  In 
such  expressions  as  "I  read  to  learn,"  the  infinitive  is  not  governed  by  "  I  read," 
but  depends  on  the  phrase  "  in  onlcr  to  "  understood. 

Rem.  2.  The  infinitive  is  also  used  sometimes  independently  of  the  rest  of  the 
sentence,  lil^e  the  imperfect  participle ;  {^  80,  Obs.  3.)  as,  To  confess  the  truth,  I 
was  in  fault. 

Rule. — The  infinitive  mood  is  often  governed  by  noitns,  adjectives 
and  participles,  and  sometimes  stands  after  as  corresponding  with  so ; 
as,  They  have  a  desire  to  learn  :  Worthy  to  be  praised  :  Wishing  to 
excel :  Be  so  good  as  to  read  this  letter. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Strive  learn.  They  obliged  him  do  it.  Newton  did 
not  wish  obtrude  his  discoveries  on  the  public.  His  pene- 
tiation  and  diligence  seemed  vie  with  each  other. 

2.  They  need  not  to  call  upon  her.  I  dare  not  to  pro- 
ceed so  hastily.  I  have  seen  some  young  persons  to  con- 
duct themselves  very  discreetly.  He  bade  me  to  go  home. 
It  is  the  difference  of  their  conduct  which  makes  us  to  ap. 
prove  the  one  and  to  reject  the  other.  We  heard  the  thun- 
der to  roll.  He  felt  the  pain  to  abate.  I  would  have  you 
to  take  more  care.  He  was  reluctantly  made  obey.  They 
were  heard  say  it  in  a  large  company.  They  were  seen 
pass  the  house.  He  was  let  to  go.  I  have  observed  some 
satirists  to  use  the  term. 

Promiscuous. — He  writes  as  the  best  authors  would  have 
wrote,  had  they  writ  upon  the  same  subject.  The  enemies 
who  we  have  most  to  fear,  are  those  of  our  own  hearts. 
They  that  honour  me,  them  will  I  honour.  Good  as  the 
cause  is,  it  is  one  from  which  numbers  are  deserted.  The 
number  was  now  amounted  to  fifty.  They  were  descended 
from  a  noble  family. 


§  68.  SYNTAX. 


Ill 


§  68.  Rule  XIX.  1.  Whe7i  doubt  and  futurity 
are  both  implied,  the  subjunctive  mood  is  used ;  as, 
Though  he  fall,  (i.  e.  at  some  future  time,)  he  shall 
arise  again. 

2,  When  doubt  only,  a7id  not  futurity,  is  implied, 
the  indicative  is  used;  as,  If  he  speaks  (i.  e.  now,) 
as  he  thinks,  he  may  be  safely  trusted. 

Remark.  Doubt  is  usually  expressed  by  the  conjunctions  if,  though,  unless, 
except,  whether.  Sec.  Whether  futurity  is  implied  or  not,  must  be  ascertained 
from  the  context  In  accurate  composition,  of  course  the  mood  employed  will 
direct  to  the  meaning  of  the  sentence ;  thus,  "  I  will  do  it  if  the  master  desire* 
me,"  (i.  e.  at  present.)  Here  there  is  uncertainty  only  whether  he  does  desire  me. 
"  I  will  do  it  if  the  master  desire  me,"  (i.  e.  at  a  future  time.)  Here  there  is  un- 
certainty whether  he  will  desire  me.  or  not.  Consequently  there  is  both  doubt 
and  futurity.  Jf  and  though,  ice.  when  referring  to  what  is  fi.ted  and  certain,  are 
equivalent  to  •'  notwithstanding,"  and  consequently  the  verb  follows  in  the  in- 
dicative ;  as,  "  Though  he  teas  rich,  yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor. 

Rule  I.  Lest,  and  that,annexed  to  a  command,  require  the  subjunc- 
tive mood;  as,  Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou  come  to  poverty.  Take  heed 
tiiat  thou  speak  not  to  Jacob,  either  good  or  bad. 

Rule  II.  If,  with  hut  following  it,  when  futurity  is  denoted,  requires 
the  subjunctive  mood;  as,  If  he  do  but  touch  the  hills  they  shall  smoke. 
When  future  time  is  not  expressed,  the  indicative  ought  to  be  used, 

Obs.  The  subjunctive  is  used  to  express  a  wish  or  desire  ;  as,  "  I 
wish  that  I  were  at  home."     "  O  that  he  were  wise." 

EXERCISES. 

If  a  man  smites  his  servant  and  he  die,  he  shall  surely 
be  put  to  death.  If  he  acquires  riches  they  will  corrupt 
his  mind.  Though  he  be  high  he  hatli  respect  to  the  lowly. 
If  thou  live  virtuously,  thou  art  happy.  If  he  does  promise 
he  will  certainly  perform.  0  that  his  heart  was  tender. 
As  the  governess  were  present  the  children  behaved  pro- 
perly. Though  he  falls  he  shall  not  be  utterly  cast  down. 
If  he  is  at  home  to-morrow,  give  him  the  letter. 

(Rule  I.)  Despise  not  any  condition  lest  it  happens  to 
be  thy  own.  Let  him  that  is  sanguine  take  heed  lest  he 
miscarries.     Take  care  that  thou  speakest  the  truth. 

(Rule  II.)  If  he  is  but  discreet  he  will  succeed.  If  he 
be  but  in  health  I  am  content.  If  he  does  but  intimate  hia 
desire,  it  will  produce  obedience. 


112  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  (>9. 

§69.  Rule  XX.  1.  Conjimctio7is  couple  the  same 
moods  and  tenses  of  verbs  ;  as,  Do  good,  and  seek 
peace. 

2.  Conjunctions  couple  the  same  cases  of  nouns 
and  pronouns  ;  as,  He  and  I  are  happy. 

Remark  1.  Verbs  in  the  sarnc  mood  anil  tt-nse,  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
must  also  be  in  the  same  form.    For  thf  diiTercnt  forms  of  the  verb,  see  ^  2-1. 

Rem.  2.  When  conjunctions  connect  different  moodn  and  tenses,  the  nomina- 
tive is  generally  repeated  ;  as,  He  may  return,  but  he  will  not  remain. 

Rem.  3.  When  a  contrast  is  stated,  with  but,  not,  thnug-h,  &c.  the  nominative 
is  usually  repeated,  even  with  the  same  mood  and  tense  ;  as,  You  can  not  ride, 
but  you  may  walk. 

Observation.  After  verbs  of  doubting;  fearing  and  dmying,  the  conjunrtion 
that  should  be  used,  and  not  lest,  but,  but  that ;  as,  You  do  not  doubt  that  he  is 
honest,  (not,  but  that,  &c.)  They  feared  that  they  would  not  return,  (not  Ustt 
&c.)  You  do  not  deny  that  he  has  some  ability,  (not,  but  he  has,)  &c.  TAot  is 
frequently  understood ;  as.  We  were  desirous  {that)  you  would  return. 

Rem.  4.  The  relative  usually  follows  than  in  the  objective  case,  even  when  the 
nominative  goes  before ;  a.«,  Alfred,  than  whom  a  greater  king  never  reigned. 
This  anomaly  it  is  difficult  to  explain.  Most  probably,  "  than,"  at  first  had  the 
force  of  a  preposition,  which  it  now  retains  only  when  followed  by  tlie  relative. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  He  reads  and  wrote  well.  Anger  glances  into  the 
breast  of  a  wise  man  but  will  rest  only  in  the  bosom  of 
fools.  If  he  understand  the  subject  and  attends  to  it  he 
can  scarcely  fail  of  success.  Professing  regard  and  to  act 
differently  mark  a  base  mind. 

2.  He  or  me  must  go.  Neither  he  nor  her  can  attend. 
You  and  us  enjoy  many  privileges.  My  father  and  him 
were  very  intimate.  He  is  taller  than  me.  I  am  not  so 
wise  as  him.  She  was  six  years  older  than  me.  You  may 
as  lawfully  preach  as  them  that  do. 

1.  We  often  overlook  the  blessings  we  possess,  and  are 
searching  after  those  which  are  out  of  our  reach.  Did  he 
not  tell  thee  his  fault,  and  entreated  thee  to  forgive  him? 

2  &  3.  Rank  may  confer  influence,  but  will  not  neces- 
sarily produce  virtue.  She  was  proud  though  now  humble. 
He  is  not  rich  but  respectable.  Our  season  of  improve- 
ment is  short,  and  whether  used  or  not  will  soon  pass  away. 
I  have  been  young,  but  now  am  old. 

(Obs.)  We  can  not  question  but  this  confederacy  must 
have  been  a  source  of  friendship  and  attachment.  W© 
were  apprehensive  lest  some  accident  had  happened. 


§  70.  SYKTAX.  113 

§  70.     Rule  XXI.     Sotne  conjunctions  and  ad- 
verbs have  their  corresponding  conjunctions  ;  thus, 

JVfer'tAtr  requires  nor  after  it;  as,  Neither  he  nor  his  brother  was  in. 

TTiough,  yet ;  as,  Though  he  was  ricli,  yet  for  our  sakes.  &c. 

Wlietker, or;        VVliethcr  lie  go  or  stay. 

Eitker,     or ;        I  will  either  write  or  send. 

.^s,  as  ;        (expressing  equality)  Mine  is  as  good  as  yours. 

-'«,  • so  ;        (expressing  equality)  As  the  stars,  so  sliall  thy  seed  be. 

So, as;        (with  a  negative  expressing  inequality^  He  is  not  so 

wise  as  his  brother. 

So,  that ;     (expressing  consequence)  I  am  so  weak  that!  cannot 

walk. 

IVol  oiUy, but  also  ;  Not  only  his  property,  but  also  his  life  was  in  dan- 
ger. 

//",  then ;     (in  reasoning)  If  he  can  do  it,  then  he  will  do  it. 

Mole.  As  and  so  in  the  antecedent  member  of  a  comparison  are  properly  ad- 
veriis. — ^  34,  4. 

Rem.  The  infinitive  is  often  used  after  as  corresponding  toso ;  as, "  Imust  be  bo 
plain  as  to  tell  you  your  faults." 

J^'ute.  The  Poets  frequently  use  Or — or,  for  Either — or  and  JVor — jtor,  for 
JiTcitlier — nor.  In  prose,  J'Tot — nor,  is  often  used  for  J^cither — nor.  The  yet  af 
ter  though  is  often  properly  suppressed.  Or  does  not  require  citAer  before,  when 
the  one  word  is  a  mere  explanation  of  the  other ;  as.  It  is  six  feet  or  one  fathom 
deep.    In  other  cases,  when  either  is  not  used,  it  may  be  supplied. 

EXERCISES. 
It  is  neither  cold  or  hot.  It  is  so  clear  as  I  need  not 
explain  it.  The  relations  are  so  uncertain  as  that  they 
require  much  examination.  The  one  is  equally  deserv- 
ing as  the  other.  I  must  he  so  candid  to  own  that  I 
have  heen  mistaken.  He  would  not  do  it  himself  nor  let 
me  do  it.  He  was  as  angry  as  he  could  not  speak.  So 
as  thy  days  so  shall  thy  strength  be.  Though  he  slay 
me  so  will  I  trust  in  him.  He  must  go  himself  or  send 
his  servant.  Tiiere  is  no  condition  so  secure  as  cannot 
admit  of  change.  He  is  not  as  eminent  and  as  much  es- 
teemed as  he  thinks  himself  to  he.  Neither  despise  the 
poor  or  envy  t!ie  rich,  for  the  one  dieth  so  as  the  other. 
As  far  as  I  am  ahle  to  judge,  the  book  is  well  written. 
His  raiment  was  so  white  as  snov/.  He  must  he  as  can- 
did  as  to  say  so.  There  was  no  man  so  sanguine,  who 
did  not  apprehend  some  ill  consequences.  The  dog  in 
the  manger  would  not  eat  the  hay  himself  nor  suffer  tiie 
ox  to  do  it.  He  was  so  fat  he  could  hardly  walk. — 
Neither  despise  or  oppose  what  thou  dost  not  understand. 
11* 


114  ENGLISH    cnAMMAR.  §71. 

§  71.  RuLK  XXII.  The  cofnparative  degree 
and  the  pronoun  other  require  tlum  after  them,  and 
such  reiptires  as ;  as,  Grcciter  than  I  ;  No  other 
than,  he  ;  Such  as  do  well. 

Such  ineaiiiiig  a  consr.qnencc,  or  so  great  requires  that  after  it. 
Rule. —  When  tivo  objects  arc  cunipaied,  the  comparative  is  ifeneratly 
used ;  but  when  more  than  two,  the  superlative  ;  as,  Jatnes  is  older  tlian 
John.     Mary  is  the  wisest  of  them  all. 

Remark  1.  Sometimes,  however,  the  superlative  is  us.'d  wlien  only  two  nhjects 
are  compared,  as  it  is  frequently  more  agreeable  to  the  car,  and  it  cannot  injure 
tlie  sense  ;  ;lius,  lie  is  the  weakest  of  the  two. 

Rem.  2.  A  comparison  in  which  more  than  two  is  concerned  may  he  expressed 
by  the  comparative  as  well  as  by  the  superlative ;  and  in  some  cases  better:  but 
tlic  comparative  considers  the  objects  compared  as  belonging  to  diderent  classes ; 
while  the  su])erlative  compares  tnem  as  included  in  one  class.  The  comparative 
is  used  thus  ;  "Greece  v/as  more  polished  than  any  o(/icr  nation  of  antiquity."  Here 
Greece  stands  by  herself,  as  opposed  to  the  other  nations  of  antiquity.  She 
was  none  of  the  other  nations  :  She  was  more  polished  than  they.  The  same 
idea  is  expressed  by  tlic  superlative  when  the  word  other  is  left  out.  Thus. 
"  Greece  was  the  most  polished  nation  of  antiquity."  Here  to  Greece  is  assij^iicd  the 
highest  place  in  the  class  of  objects  among  which  she  is  numbered — the  nations  of 
antiquity :  she  is  one  of  them.  This  distinction  should  be  carefully  observed.  The 
comparative  is  sometimes  used  in  the  same  way  ;  as,  lie  is  the  taller  of  the  two. 
EXERCISES. 
He  has  little  inore  of  the  scholar  besides  the  name. 
Be  ready  to  succour  such  persons  who  need  thy  assist- 
ance. They  had  no  sooner  risen  but  they  applied  them- 
selves  to  their  studies.  These  savage  people  seemed  to 
have  no  other  element  but  war.  Such  men  that  act 
treacherously  ought  to  be  avoided.  He  gained  nothing 
farther  by  his  speech,  but  only  to  be  commended  for  his 
eloquence.  This  is  none  other  but  the  gate  of  Paradise. 
Such  sharp  replies  that  cost  him  his  life.  To  trust  in 
him  is  no  more  but  to  acknowledge  his  power. 

(Rule.)  James  is  the  wisest  of  the  two.  Of  the  three, 
Jane  is  the  weaker.  (Rem.  2.)  Chimborazo  is  higher 
than  any  other  mountain  in  Europe.  Eve  was  the  fair- 
est  of  all  her  daughters.  I  understood  him  the  best  of 
all  others  who  spoke  on  the  subject.  Solomon  was  wiser 
than  any  of  the  ancient  kings.  China  has  a  greater 
population  than  any  nation  on  earth.  London  is  the 
most  populous  of  any  city  in  France.  Spain  possessed 
more  merchant  ships  than  any  nation  in  Europe.  Jacob 
lOved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  children. 


§  72.  SYNTAX.  115 

§  72.  Rule  XXITI.  Double  comparatives  aiid 
superlatives  are  improper  ;  Thus  we  oiiglit  not  to 
say,  "more  better,"  "most  better,"  but  "better," 
"  best." 

Obs.  It  is  iinpropor  to  compare  adjectives  whose  signification  docs  not  admit 
of  increase  or  (Uiiiiiiution,  {'^  13,  Obs.  4.)  Of  tliis  kind  are  Irur,  perfect,  uni- 
vtrsal,  chirf,  extreme,  supreme,  &.C.,  wliicli  have  in  themselves  a  su|iorIative 
sense.  VVIien  comparison  of  these  and  similar  words  is  admitted,  as  is  sometimca 
d(;ne,  ttiey  must  be  undtrstood  in  a  limited  sense.  Pucli  adjectives  as  superior, 
inferior,  though  they  imply  comparison,  are  not  in  the  comparative  degree,  aud 
are  never  construed  as  such,  but  have  to  after  them. 

EXERCISES. 

It  argued  the  mo.st  sincerest  candor  to  make  sucli  an 
acknowledgement.  After  the  most  .strictest  sect  of  our 
religion  I  lived  a  Phnri.see.  He  al\va3^s  pos.sessed  a  more 
serener  temper.  'Ti.s  more  easier  to  build  two  chimneys, 
than  to  maintain  one.  The  tongue  is  like  a  race  horse 
which  runs  the  faster  the  lesser  weight  it  carries.  The 
nightingales  voice  is  the  most  sweetest  in  the  grove. 

His  assertion  was  most  untrue.  His  work  was  per- 
fect ;  his  hrotiier's  more  perfect,  and  his  father's  the  most 
perfect  of  all.  Virtue  confers  tiie  supremest  dignity  on 
man,  and  should  be  his  chiefest  desire.  His  most  ex- 
treme vanity  rendei-s  him  most  supremely  ridiculous. 
This  is  more  interior  than  that  though  it  is  more  superior 
than  man}'  others, 

I'ROMISCUOUS    EXERCISES, 

The  great  power  and  force  of  custom  form.s  another 
argunient  against  bad  com[)any.  And  Joshua  he  shall  go 
over  before  thee  as  the  Lord  liath  said.  If  thou  be  the 
kinf  oC  the  .lews  save  thvsclf.  The  people  t'rierefore  that 
was  with  him  when  he  raised  Lazarus  out  of  his  grave, 
bare  record.  Public  spirit  is  a  more  universal  principle 
than  a  sen.se  of  honour.  I  sec  you  have  a  new  pair  of 
gloves.  Five  years'  interest  were  demanded.  In  all  iiis 
works  is  sprightliness  and  vigour.  The  returns  of  kind- 
ness  is  sweet,  and  there  arc  neither  Ijonour  nor  virtue 
in  resisting  them. 

How  rarely  reason  guides  the  stubborn  choice; 

Rule  the  bold  bami,  or  jirompt  the  suppliant  voice. 


116  ENGLISH    GRAMMAE.  §  T3. 

§  73.  Rule  XXIV.  1.  Adverbs  modify  verbs, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs.  §  33. 

2.  Adverbs  should  not  be  used  as  adjectives ; 
Thus,  "Use  a  little  wine  for  thine  ofte?i  infirmities," 
should  be,  '•  for  ihy  frequent  infirmities." 

Rule  I.  From  should  not  be  nsid  before  h'-nce,  thence,  and  whence, 
because  it  is  implied, 

JVotc.  Custom,  however,  has  so  far  sanctioned  the  violation  of  this  rule,  that  a 
strict  adherence  to  it  would  now  appear  stiff  and  affected. 

Rule  II.  ^/ter  verbs  of  motion,  liither,  thither,  and  whither,  are  now 
used  only  on  solemn  occasions.  In  other  cases,  the  adverbs,  here, 
there,  and  where,  are  employed  ;  as.  He  came  here.     We  rode  there. 

Obs.  1.  Where  should  not  be  used  for  in  luhich,  nor  when,  then,  and 
ichile  as  nouns.  So,  is  often  used  clliptically  for  an  adjective,  a  noun, 
or  a  whole  sentence  ;  as.  They  are  rich,  we  are  not  so.  He  is  a  good 
scholar,  and  I  told  you  so. 

Obs.  2.  Only,  solely,  chiefly,  merely,  too,  also,  and  perhaps  a  few  others, 
are  sometimes  joined  to  substantives  ;  as.  Not  07ily  the  men,  but  tha 
women  also  were  present. 

Obs.  3.  There  is  an  adverb  of  place  ;  but  in  the  common  phrases 
"there  is,"  "there  are,"  "there  have  been,"  &c.  its  reference  to  place 
is  lost  sitrhr  of,  and  it  is  used  merely  as  a  ieaJing  word  to  the  verb,  when 
the  nominative  follows  it,  and  to  convey  tlie  idea  of  existence  simply  ; 
as,  "  There  are  men  who  cannot  read"  i.  e.  men  are  in  existaice  who 
cannot  read.  To  say,  "men  are  who  cannot  read,"  would  in  our  lan- 
guage, at  least,  sound  abiupt  and  harsh.  The  French  make  the  same  use 
of  this  adverb  in  the  corresponding  e.xprcssions  "  il  y  a,"  "  il  y  avoit."  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

They  hoped  for  a  soon  and  prosperous  issue  to  the  war. 
He  was  hefriended  by  the  then  reigning  Duke.  Some  of 
my  then  hearers  urged  me  to  publish  these  lectures. 

(Rule  I.  and  II.)  From  whence  come  ye  ?  He  departed 
from  thence  into  a  desert  place.  I  will  send  thee  far  from 
hence  to  the  Gentiles.  Where  art  thou  gone  !  The  city  is 
near,  O  let  me  escape  there.  Where  I  am,  there  ye  can- 
not come.  From  whence  we  may  likewise  date  the  period 
of  this  event.     He  walked  thither  in  less  than  an  hour. 

(Obs.  1.)  He  drew  up  a  petition  where  he  represented 
his  own  merit.  He  went  to  London  last  year,  since  when 
I  have  not  seen  him.     The  situation  where  I  found  him. 


•5*  74.  SYNTAX.  ]  17 

§  74.  Rule  XXV.  Adverbs  are  for  the  most 
part  ■placed  before  adjectives,  after  a  verb  in  the 
simple  form,  and  after  the  first  auociliary  in  the  com- 
pound form ;  as,  He  is  very  attentive,  behaves  well, 
and  is  much  esteemed. 

Obs.  1.  This  is  to  be  considered  only  as  a  general  rule  to  which  there  are  many 
exceptions.  Indeed  no  rule  for  the  position  of  the  adverb  can  be  given,  which  is 
not  liable  to  e.Tccptions.  That  order  is  the  best  which  conveys  the  meaning  with 
most  precision.  In  order  to  this,  the  adverb  is  sometimes  plaod  before  the  verb, 
or  at  some  distance  after  it.  JVraer,  often,  always,  sometimes,  generally  precede 
the  verb.  j\'ot,  with  the  present  participle,  should  generally  be  placed  before  it. 
Enough  follows  the  adjective,  and  sometimes  boUi  follow  the  noun  ;  thus,  a 
BoUd  enough  reason,  or,  a  reason  solid  enough. 

The  introductive  or  emphatic  there,  and  the  interrogative  where,  are  placed  al 
the  beginning  of  the  sentence ;  as,  There  were  many  varieties  ;  There  they  are. 
IVhere  are  you  1 — There,  in  its  strict  sense,  follows  tlieverb;  as,  The  man  stands 
there. 

Obs.  2.  The  improper  position  of  the  adverb  only,  often  occasions  ambiguity. 
This  will  generally  be  avoided  when  it  refers  to  a  sentence  or  clause,  by  placing  it 
at  the  beginning  of  that  sentence  or  clause ;  when  it  refers  to  a  predicate,  by  pla- 
cing it  before  the  predicating  term  ;  and  when  it  refers  to  a  subject,  by  placing  it 
after  its  name  or  description,  as,  "  Only  acknowledge  thine  iniquity:"  "The 
thoughts  of  his  heart  are  only  evil :"  Take  nothing  for  your  journey  but  a  staff 
only."  These  observations  will  generally  be  applicable  to  the  words,  merely, 
eclely,  chiefly,  first,  at  least,  and  perhaps  to  a  few  others. 

Obs.  3.    Ever  and  never  are  sometimes  improperly  confounded. 

EXERCISES. 
We  should  not  be  overcome  totally  by  present  events. 
He  unafTectedly  and  forcibly  spoke,  and  was  lieard  atten< 
tivelv  by  the  whole  assembly.  It  cannot  be  impertinent 
or  ridiculous,  therefore,  to  remonstrate.  Not  only  he 
found  her  employed,  but  pleased  and  tranquil  also.  In 
the  proper  disposition  of  adverbs,  the  ear  carefully  re- 
quires to  be  consulted  as  well  as  the  sense. 

(Obs.  1.)  The  women  contributed  all  their  rings  and 
jewels  voluntarily  to  assist  the  government.  Having  not 
known,  or  having  not  considered  the  measures  proposed, 
he  failed  of  success.  He  was  determined  to  invite  back 
the  king,  and  to  call  together  his  friends. 

(Obsr2.)  Theisnj  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism. 
By  greatnes.s,  I  do  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single 
object,  but  the  largeness  of  a  whole  view.  Only  you 
have  I  known,  of  all  the  nations  of  the  earth.  In  using 
every  exertion  in  our  power  for  the  public  good,  we  only 
discharge  our  duty. 


118  ENGLISH    GRA3IMAR.  §  75. 

§  75.  Rule  XXVI.  Ttcn  negatives  in  the  same 
sentejicc  are  improper^  unless  ive  mean  to  affirm,  ; 
thus,  "  I  cannot  by  no  means  allow  it,"  should  be,  "I 
cannot  by  any  means  allow  it."  Or,  "  1  can  by  no 
means  allow  it." 

riie  reason  of  tills  rule  is,  that  one  negative  destroys  another,  or  is  equivalent 
to  an  affirmative. 

Obs.  Sometimes  two  negatives  are  Intended  to  affirm,  and  in  this  case,  if  one  of 
thom,  such  as  dis-,  in-,  im-,  un-,  &c.  is  prefixed  to  another  word,  a  pleasing  and 
delicate  variety  of  expression  is  produced ;  as,  "  Nor  was  the  king  unacquainted 
with  his  designs,"  i.e.  he  "was  acquainted  with  them."  In  such  sentences  the 
intervention  of  only,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  distinct  clause,  preserves  the  nega- 
tion ;  as,  "  He  was  not  only  illiberal,  but  he  was  covetous."  But  if  the  negative 
consist  of  two  separate  and  detached  words,  the  expression  is  generally  harsh  and 
inelegant ;  as,  Nor  have  I  no  money  which  I  can  spare,  i.  c.  1  have  money  which 
I  can  spare. 

J^ote.  The  English  language  in  this  respect  agrees  with  the  Latin,  but  difTers 
from  the  Greek  and  French,  in  both  of  which  two  negatives  with  the  same  sub 
ject  render  the  negation  stronger. 

EXERCISES. 
I  cannot  drink  no  more.  He  cannot  do  nothing.  He 
will  never  be  no  taller.  Covet  neither  riches  nor  honours, 
nor  no  such  perishing  things.  Do  not  interrupt  me  thyself, 
nor  let  no  one  disturb  me.  I  am  resolved  not  to  comply 
with  the  proposal,  neither  at  present  nor  at  any  other  time. 
I  have  received  no  information  on  the  subject,  neither  from 
him  nor  from  his  friend.  There  cannot  be  nothing  more 
insignificant  than  vanity.  Nor  is  danger  apprehended  in 
such  a  government,  no  more  than  we  commonly  apprehend 
danger  from  thunder  or  earthquakes.  Never  no  imitator 
grew  up  to  his  author. 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES. 

James  and  I  am  cousins.  Thy  father's  merits  sets  thee 
forth  to  view.  That  it  is  our  duty  to  be  pious  admit -not 
of  any  doubt.  If  he  becomes  rich  he  may  be  less  indus- 
trious. It  was  wrote  extempore.  Romulus,  which  founded 
Rome,  killed  his  brother  Remus.  He  involved  a  friend  in 
a  troublesome  lawsuit  who  had  always  supported  him. 
\Mio  of  you  convinceth  me  of  sin.  I  treat  you  as  a  boy 
who  love  to  learn  and  are  ambitious  of  receivmg  instruc- 
tion. He  was  the  ablest  minister  which  James  ever  pos- 
sessed. 


§  76,  SYNTAX,  119 

§  76.   Rule  XXYII.     Appropriate  pr^ositiona 
must  be  used  before  names  of  places  ;  thus, 

To— IS  used  after  a  verb  of  motion  ;  as,  He  went  to  Spain,  but  it  is  omitted  be- 
fore heme  ;  as,  he  went  home  yesterday. 

At—is  used  after  the  verb  to  be ;  as,  I  was  at  Rochester. 

In— is  used  before  names  of  countries  and  large  ciUes  ;  as,  I  live  In  Albany,  In 
the  State  of  New-Yorlt. 

jJi— is  used  before  single  houses,  villages,  towns,  and  foreign  cities ;  as,  He  is  at 
home,  He  resided  at  Gretna  green  ;  at  York ;  at  Rome. 

Obs.  1.  One  inhabitant  speaking  of  another's  residence,  says.  He  lives  in  State 
Street,  or  if  the  word  number  be  used, — at  No. State  Street. 

Obs.  2.  Interjectiens  sometimes  have  an  objective  after  them,  but  tliey  never 
govern  it ;  it  is  always  governed  by  an  active  verb  or  preposition  understood  ;  as, 
Ah  me !  i.  e.  ^9A ,'  what  has  happened  to  me.  The  case  after  an  interjection  wlB 
always  have  to  depend  on  the  supplement  to  be  made.  It  will  generally,  how- 
ever, be  the  objective  of  ihefrst  personal  pronoun,  and  the  nominative  of  tbe 
second;  as,  Ah  me.'  O  Oiou  wrelcli !  $  80.  2. 

EXERCISES. 

They  hav-e  just  arrived  in  Buffalo,  and  are  going  to  Ro- 
chester. They  will  reside  two  months  at  England.  I  have 
been  to  London  after  having  resided  in  France,  and  I  now 
live  at  New-York.  1  was  in  the  place  appointed  long  be- 
fore any  of  the  rest.  We  touched  in  Liverpool  on  our  way 
for  New- York.  I  have  been  to  home  for  a  few  days.  He 
spends  much  of  his  time  in  a  village  in  Long  Island. ,  He 
had  lodgings  at  George's  Square.  He  boards  in  No.  12, 
Dean-street.  We  have  been  to  home  since  morning.  I 
will  go  to  home  to-morrow. 

(Obs.  2.)  Ah!  unhappy  thee,  who  are  deaf  to  the  calls 
of  duty  and  of  honour.  Oh !  happy  us,  surrounded  with 
so  many  blessings.  Woe's  I,  for  I  am  a  man  of  unclean 
lips. 

Promiscuous.  lie  has  been  e.vpecting  of  us  some  time. 
Young  persons  need  not  to  be  initiated  in  the  language  of 
controversy.  His  quittingof  the  army  was  unexpected.  I 
seen  him  yesterday.  If  there  was  no  cowardice,  there 
would  be  little  insolence.  I  was  rejoiced  at  the  news.  I 
shall  do  my  friends  no  wrong,  for  I  have  none  t<»  lament 
me.  They  were  descended  from  a  family  that  caine  over 
with  the  Conqueror.  They  did  not  behave  with  that  deco- 
rum which  is  the  duty  of  every  gentleman  to  observe. 


120 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


/.  T7. 


§  77.  Rule  XXVIII.  Certain  words  and  phrases 
must  be  followed  with  appropriate  prepositions ; 
such  as, 


Abliorrencc  of. 
Accomiuodatu  to. 
Accord  loilh. 
Accuse  of. 
Acquit  of. 
Adapted  to. 
Agreeable  to. 

Ask   or  inquire  of  a  person  /w 
what  we   wish    to    see, — after 
what  we  wish  to  hear  of. 
Averse  to  or  from. 
Believe  in,  sometimes  on. 
Bestow  upon. 
Betray    to   a    person, — into    any 

thing  else. 
Boast  of.  See  Obs.  3. 
Call  on  a  person, — at  a  house. 
Change /or. 
Charge  a  person  with  a  thing, — 

a  thing  on  an  agent. 
Compare    loith,    in    respect    of 
quality, — to,    for    the    sake  of 
illustration. 
Compliance  with. 
Concur  with,  in,  on. 
Confide  in. 

Conformable,  consonant  to. 
Conversant  i«t7/i  men, — in  things; 
about  and  among  are  less 
proper. 
Copy  from  life,  nature, — after  a 

parent. 
Dependent  upon. 
Derogative  from. 
Die  o/ disease — by  an  instrument 

or  violence. 
Differ /ro7?i. 
Difficulty  in. 

Diminish /)-oHi, — diminution  of 
Disappointed  in  or  of.  §  86,  5. 
Disapprove  of.  See  Obs.  3. 
Discourage  from. 
Discouragement  to. 
Dissent /roni. 
Eager  in. 


Engaged  in  a  work — Jur  a  time. 

Equal  to,  wilh. 

Exception  from. 

Exjjcrt  in,   (before  a  noun,) — at, 

Tbefore  an  active  participle.) 
Fall  under. 

Familiar    to,   icilh:    A    thing    is 
familiar  to  us  ;   we  are  familiar 
ivilli  it. 
Free  from. 

Glad    of,    something   gained    I)y 
ourselves, — at,   something  that 
befais  another. 
Incorporate   into,   (when  active.) 
luith,  (when  neuter.) 
Independent  of  or  on. 
Indulge  with  what  's  not  habit 

ual, — in  what  is  habitual. 
Insist  upon. 
Intrude  into  an  enclosed  place  ; 

upon  what  is  not  enclosed. 
Made  of. 
Marry  to. 
Martyr  for. 
Need  of. 
Observation  of. 
Prejudice  against. 
Prevail    (to   persuade)   with,   on, 
upon, — (to    overcome,)    over, 
against. 
Profit  by. 

Protect      (others)      from, — (our- 
selves) against. 
Provide  with  or  for. 
Reconcile     to    friendship, — wilh, 

(to  make  consistent.) 
Reduce    (to   subdue)    under, — in 
other  cases,  to ;  as,  to  powder, 
to  fractions. 
Regard  to. 
Replete  unth. 
Resemblance  to. 
Resolve  on. 
Rule  ovtr. 
Sick  of. 


§  77.  SYNTAX.  121 

Rule  XXVIII.    Continued. 

Sink  into,  benealli.  sense)    tct7/i, — (in    an    active 

Swerve  from.  sense)  to. 

Taste /or,  or  of.  §  86,  6.  Value  itpon  or  on. 

Tax  ivilh,  (e.  g.  a  crime,)— /or    Yest  %oitli  a  thing  possessed — in 

the  state.  the  possessor. 

Think  of  or  on.  Wait  upon,  on. 

True  to.  Worthy  of;  sometimes  the  of  ia 

Unite   (in   a  nenlral   or  passiro        imderstood. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  particular  preposition  which  it  is  proper  to  use,  often  de- 
pends as  much  upon  what  follows  as  npon  what  goes  before  ;  thua 
>ve  say,  To  fall  /ro»u  a  height, — to  fall  into  a  pit, — to  fall  to  work, — 
to  fall  upon  an  enemy. 

2.  Into  is  used  only  after  verbs  of  motion,  and  denotes  enfra»ice; 
In  is  used  when  motion  or  rest  in  a  place  is  signified  ;  as,  They  went 
into  a  carriage,  and  travelled  in  it  ten  miles. 

3.  Boast,  aprprove,  and  disapprove,  are  often  nsed  without  of. 
Worthy  has  sometimes  o/ following  it,  and  sometimes  not. 

4.  The  same  preposition  that  follows  llie  verb  or  ailjeclive,  usually 
follows  tlTe  noun  derived  from  it,  and  vice  versa ;  as.  Confide  in, — 
confidence  in, — confident  in.  Disposed  to  tyrannize, — a  dispositiotj 
to  tyrannize,  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

He  was  very  eager  of  recommending  liim  to  his  fel- 
low-citizens. He  found  great  difficulty  of  writing.  lie 
accused  the  ministers  for  having  betrayed  the  Dutch. 
This  is  certainly  not  a  change  to  the  better.  Tiie  Eng- 
lish were  a  very  different  people  then  to  what  they  arc 
now.  The  history  of  Peter  is  agreeable  with  the  sa- 
cred text.  It  was  intrusted  to  persons  on  whom  Con- 
gress could  confide.  I  completely  dissent  with  the  exa- 
miner. Nothing  shall  make  me  swerve  out  of  the  path 
of  duty.  There  was  no  water,  and  he  died  for  thirst. 
We  can  safely  confide  on  none  but  the  truly  good. 
Many  have  profited  from  good  advice.  Tlie  error  was 
occasioned  by  compliance  to  earnest  entreaty.  This  is  a 
principle  in  unison  to  our  nature.  This  remark  is  found- 
ed in  truth.  His  parents  think  on  him  and  his  improve 
menta  with  pleasure  and  hope. 
12 


122  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  77. 

Exercises  on  Rule  XXVIII.   Continued, 

You  have  bestowed  your  favors  to  the  most  deserving 
persons.  The  wisest  persons  need  not  think  it  anv  di. 
minution  of  their  greatness,  or  derogation  to  their  suffi- 
ciency, to  rely  upon  counsel.  Confornnable  with  this 
plan.  It  is  consonant  vvitii  our  nature.  He  had  no  re- 
gard after  his  father's  commands.  There  was  a  preju- 
dice to  his  cause.  There  is  no  need  for  it.  Reconciling 
himself  with  the  king.  They  have  no  resemblance  with 
each  other.  Upon  such  occasions  as  fell  into  their  cogni- 
zance. I  am  engaged  with  preparing  for  a  journov.  We 
profit  from  experience.  He  is  resolved  of  going  to  the 
Persian  court.  Expert  about  deceiving.  The  Romans 
reduced  the  world  to  their  own  power.  He  provided 
them  in  every  thing.  He  seems  to  have  a  taste  of  such 
studies.  You  are  conversant  with  that  science.  He  is 
more  conversant  in  men  of  science  than  in  politicians. 
These  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  He  died  for 
thirst.  He  died  of  the  sword.  He  is  glad  of  calamities. 
She  is  glad  at  his  company. 

He  saw  your  brother,  and  inquired  from  him  for  his 
friend's  health.  He  was  charged  on  being  accessary  to 
the  murder.  This  is  the  first  time  we  have  been  indulged 
in  such  a  luxury.  He  indulges  himself  with  the  most 
pernicious  habits.  I  hope  I  do  not  intrude  into  you.  He 
will  sufl^er  no  one  to  intrude  upon  his  house.  Is  that  a 
copy  after  nature  ?  If  you  copy  from  your  father's  ex- 
ample, you  will  do  well.  He  has  never  been  reconciled 
with  his  lot.  How  can  such  conduct  be  reconciled  to  the 
principles  he  professes?  It  is  proper  that  the  people 
should  be  taxed  with  the  support  of  government.  Can- 
not you  prevail  over  your  father  to  pay  us  a  visit  ?  The 
enemy  prevailed  upon  us  by  superior  force.  Take  care 
to  protect  yourself  from  the  dangers  which  threaten  you. 
The  walls  protected  us  against  the  fire  of  the  enemy.  He 
has  now  become  familiar  to  the  rules  of  grammar.  Your 
countenance  is  familiar  with  me.  All  his  means  were 
vested  with  trade.  The  office  of  judge  and  advocate 
should  not  be  vested  with  the  same  person. 


§  78.  SYNTAX.  123 

§  78.  Rule  XXIX.  In  the  use  of  verbs  and 
words  that  in  point  of  time  relate  to  each  other,  the 
order  of  time  mnst  be  observed  ;  as,  "  I  have  known 
him  these  many  years  ; "  not,  "  I  know  him  these 
many  years." 

Remark.  The  particular  tense  necessary  to  be  used  must  depend 
upon  the  sense,  and  no  rules  can  be  given  that  will  apply  to  ail  cases. 
But  it  may  be  proper  to  observe, 

Observation  1.  An  observation  which  is  always  true  must  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  present  tense ;  as,  The  stoics  believed  that  "  all  crimes 
are  equal." 

06s.  2.  The  perfect,  and  not  the  present  tense,  should  be  used  in 
connexion  with  words  denoting  an  extent  of  Ume  continued  to  the  pre- 
sent ;  thus,  "  They  continue  with  me  now  three  days,"  should  be 
"have  continued,"  &c. 

Obs.  3.  The  perfect  tense  ought  never  to  be  used  in  connexion  with 
words  which  express  past  time;  thus,  "I  have /on)ie»7i/  mentioned 
his  attachment  to  study,"  should  be  "  I  formerly  mentioned,"  &c. 

Obs.  4.  The  present  and  past  of  the  auxiliaries,  shall,  will,  may,  can, 
should  never  be  associated  in  the  same  sentence;  and  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  subsequent  verb  be  expressed  in  the  same  tense  with 
the  antecedent  verb  ;  thus,  "  I  may  or  can  do  it  now,  if  I  choose ; " 
"  I  mi'^ht  or  could  do  it  now,  if  I  chose;"  "  I  shall  or  will  do  it,  when 
I  can ;  "  "  I  may  do  it,  if  I  can  ;  "  "  I  once  could  do  it,  but  I  loould 
not ;  "  "I  would  have  done  it  then,  but  I  coidd  not."  "  I  mention  it  to 
him,  that  he  may  stop  if  he  choose ;  "  "  I  mentioned  it  to  him,  that  he 
?iug-/j(  stop  if  he  chose;"  "I  have  mentioned  it  to  him,  that  he  may 
stop;"  "I  had  mentioned  it  to  him,  that  he  mii;ht  stop;"  "I  had 
mentioned  it  to  him,  that  he  might  have  stopped,  had  he  chosen. 

JVffte  1.  When  should  is  used  instead  of  ought,  to  express  present  duty,  ^  30, 
4,  it  may  bo  followed  by  the  present;  as,  "  You  should  study  that  you  may  be- 
come leitrned." 

JVot.e  2.  The  verb  had  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  would;  tliiis,  "  I  had 
rather  do  it,"  should  he,  "  I  would  rather  do  it." 

JfoteZ.  Would  and  should  are  sometimes,  in  common  language,  used  as  if 
they  were  almost  expletives ;  thus,  "  It  mokW  seem,"  for  ^^  It  seems." 

Obs.  5.  The  indicative  present  is  frequently  used  after  the  words 
when,  till,  before,  as  soon  as,  after,  to  express  the  relative  time  of  a 


124  ENGLISH  URAMMAE.  §78. 

Rule  XXIX.  Continued. 

future  action  ;  (§  24, 1,4,)  as,  "  When  he  comen,  he  will  be  welcome." 
When  placed  before  the  perfect  indicative,  they  denote  the  completion 
of  a  future  action,  or  event ;  as,  "He  will  never  be  better  (ill  he  has 
felt  the  pangs  of  poverty." 

Ohs.  6.  A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood  must  be  in  the  ■present  tense, 
when  it  expresses  what  is  contemporary  in  point  of  time  with  its  gov- 
erning verb,  or  subsequent  to  it;  as,  "He  appeared  to  be  a  man  of  let- 
ters ;  "  "  The  Apostles  were  determined  to  preach  the  gospel." 

Obs,  7.  But  (he  perfect  infinitive  must  be  used  to  express  what  is 
antecedent  to  the  time  of  the  governing  verb ;  as,  "  Romulus  is  said  to 
have  founded  Rome." 

EXERCISES. 

1.  The  doctor  said,  in  his  lecture,  that  fever  always  pro- 
duced thirst.  The  philosopher  said  that  heat  always  e.x- 
panded  metals.     He  said  that  truth  was  immutable. 

2.  1  know  the  family  more  than  twenty  years.  I  am 
now  at  school  six  months.  My  brother  was  sick  four  weeks, 
and  is  no  better.     He  tells  lies  long  enough. 

3.  He  has  lately  lost  an  only  son.  He  has  been  for- 
merly very  disorderly.  I  have  been  at  London  last  year, 
and  seen  the  king  last  summer.  I  have  once  or  twice  told 
the  story  to  our  friend.     He  has  done  it  before. 

4.  I  should  be  obliged  to  him,  if  he  will  gratify  me  in 
that  part  particular.  Ye  will  not  come  to  me  that  ye  might 
have  life.  Be  wise  and  good  that  you  might  be  happy. 
He  was  told  his  danger,  that  he  may  shun  it. 

(Note  1.)  We  should  respect  those  persons  because 
they  continued  long  attached  to  us.  He  should  study  dili- 
gently that  he  might  become  learned.  2.  I  had  rather  go 
now  than  afterwards.     He  had  better  do  it  soon. 

5.  We  shall  welcome  him  when  he  shall  arrive.  As 
soon  as  he  shall  return,  we  will  recommence  our  studies. 
A  prisoner  is  not  accounted  guilty,  till  he  be  convicted. 

6.  From  the  little  conversation  I  had  with  him,  he  ap- 
peared to  have  been  a  man  of  learning.  Our  friend.s  in- 
tended to  have  met  us.     He  was  afraid  he  would  have  died. 

7.  Kirstall  Abbey,  now  in  ruins,  appears  to  be  an  e.x- 
tensive  building.  Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  lawgiver,  is  said 
to  be  born  in  the  926th  year  before  Christ. 


§  79  svwTAX.  v^d 

§  79.  Rule  XXX.  When  a  member  of  a  seyt- 
fence  refers  to  two  different  clauses,  it  should  he 
equally  applicable  to  both ;  as,  He  has  not  been, 
and  cannot  be,  censtired  for  such  conduct. 

Tliis  rule  is  oftun  violated  in  sentences  in  wliicli  there  are  two 
comparisons  of  a  diffi;rent  nature  and  government.  Thus,  "He  was 
more  beloved,  but  not  so  much  admired  as  Cinthio."  Plere  "a.t  Cin- 
thio,  is  applicable  to  the  clause  "so  muck  mlmired,^'  but  cannot  be 
connected  with  "more  beloved.^'  In  such  sentences,  the  proper  way  is 
to  complete  llie  construction  of  the  first  member,  and  leave  thai  of  the 
second  understood  ;  as,  "He  was  more  beloved  than  Cinthio;  but  not 
so  much  admired''  {as  Cinthio.) 

A  proper  choice  of  words,  and  a  perspicuous  arrangement,  should 
be  carefully  attended  to. 

EXERCISES. 

This  dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book  that 
has,  or  ever  shall  be  published.  Will  it  be  urged  that 
these  books  are  as  old,  or  even  older  tlian  tradition.  He 
is  more  bold  and  active,  but  not  so  wise  and  studious  as 
his  companion.  Sincerity  is  as  valuable,  and  even  more 
valuable,  than  knowledge.  No  person  was  ever  so  per- 
plexed, or  sustained  the  mortifications  as  he  has  done  to- 
day. Neither  has  he,  nor  any  other  persons  suspected 
so  much  dissinndation.  The  intentions  of  some  of  these 
philosopliers,  nay,  of  many,  might  and  probably  were 
good.  The  reward  is  due,  and  it  has  already,  or  will 
hereafter  be  given  to  him.  This  book  is  preferable  and 
cheaper  than  the  other.  lie  either  has,  or  will  obtain  the 
prize.  lie  acted  both  suitably  and  consistently  with  his 
profession.  The  first  proposal  was  essentially  different 
and  inferior  to  the  second.  He  contrives  better,  but  does 
not  execute  so  well  as  his  brother.  There  are  j)rinciples 
in  man  which  ever  have,  and  ever  will  incline  him  to  of- 
fend. The  greatest  masters  of  critical  learning,  differ 
and  contend  against  one  another.  The  winter  has  not, 
and  probably  will  not  be  so  severe  as  was  expected.  He 
is  more  friendly  in  his  disposition,  but  not  so  distinguished 
for  talents,  as  his  brother. 

12* 


126  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  80 

§  80.  Rule  XXXI.  1.  A  substantive  with  ayar- 
ticiple^  forming  an  independent  member  of  a  sen- 
tence, is  put  in  the  nominative  case  absolute  ;  as, 
"  He  (not  him)  destroyed,  all  this  will  soon  follow." 

2.  The  person  or  thing  addressed,  without  a  verb, 
is  put  in  the  nominative  independent ;  as,  Plato. 
thou  reasonest  well.    I  am,  Sir,  your  humble  servant. 

Obs.  1.  In  the  case  absolute,  as  the  nominative  and  ohjfctivc  cases 
of  nouns  have  the  same  form,  there  is  habihty  to  error  only  in  the  use 
of  pronouns. 

2.  The  substantive  is  sometimes  understood  ;  as,  Generally  speak- 
ing, i.  e.  Wc.  His  conduct,  viewing  it  in  the  most  favourable  light, 
reflects  discredit  on  his  character,  i.  e,  we,  men,  or  a  person,  viewing 
It,  Slc. 

3.  The  infinitive  mood  is  used  absolutely  to  express  the  same  idea  ; 
as,  To  speak  generally  ;  To  view  it  in  its  most  favourable  light  Sea 
§  67,  Hem.  2. 

EXERCISES. 

He  made  as  wise  proverbs  as  any  body  since,  him  on- 
ly excepted.  Them  descending  the  ladder,  fell.  Whom 
being  dead,  we  shall  come.  But  them  lieing  absent,  we 
cannot  come  to  a  determination. 

Whose  grey  top 


Shall  tremble,  him  descending 

The  bleating  sheep  with  my  complaints  agree, 
Them  parched  with  heat,  and  me  inflamed  by  theo. 

Her  quick  relapsing  to  her  former  state, 
With  boding  fears  approach  the  sewing  train. 

There  all  thy  gifts  and  graces  we  display, 
Thee,  only  thee,  directing  all  our  way. 

So  great  ^Eneas  rushes  to  the  fight. 

Sprung  from  a  god,  and  more  than  mortal  bold. 

Him  fresh  in  youth,  and  me  in  arms  grown  old. 


§  81  SYNTAX.  127 

§  81.  Rule.  XXXII.  The  Article  A  is  used  be- 
fore nouns  in  the  singular  number  only.  The  is 
used  before  nou7is  in  both  numbers.  A  is  indefinite. 
The  is  definite.  (§4.) 

It  is  impossible  to  give  a  precise  rule  for  the  use  of  the  article  in  every 
case.  The  best  general  rule  is  to  observe  what  the  sense  requires. 
The  following  usages  may  be  noticed. 

1.  The  article  is  omitted  before  a  noun  that  stands  for  a  lohale  spe- 
cies ;  as,  Man  is  mortal ;  and  before  the  names  of  minerals,  metals, 
arts,  &c  Some  nouns  denoting  the  species,  have  the  article  always 
prefixed ;  as,  The  dog  is  a  more  grateful  animal  than  the  cat  The 
lion  is  a  noble  animal. 

2.  The  last  of  two  nouns  after  a  comparative,  should  have  no  article 
when  they  both  refer  to  one  person  or  thing ;  as,  He  is  a  better  reader 
tiian  writer. 

3.  When  two  or  more  adjectives,  or  epithets,  belong  to  the  same 
subject,  the  article  should  be  placed  before  the  first,  and  omitted  before 
the  rest;  as,  A  red  and  white  rose,  i.  e.  a  rose,  some  parts  of  which 
are  red,  and  others  white.  But  when  the  adjectives,  or  epithets  be- 
long to  different  subjects,  the  article  should  be  prefixed  to  each  ;  as,  a 
red  and  a  white  rose,  i.  e.  a  red  rose  and  a  white  rose.  "  Johnson  the 
bookseller  and  stationer,"  indicates  that  the  bookseller  and  the  sta- 
tioner are  epithets  belonging  to  the  same  person;  "the  bookseller 
and  the  stationer "  would  indicate  that  they  belong  to  different  per- 
sons. 

JVote.  The  same  remark  may  be  made  respecting  the  demonstrative  pronotm^  ; 
as,  "That  great  and  good  man,"  means  only  one  man.  That  great  and  that 
good  man,  means  two ;  the  one  great,  and  the  other  good. 

4.  A  nice  distinction  of  the  sense  is  sometimes  made,  by  the  use  or 
omission  of  the  article  a  before  the  words  few,  little.  If  I  say,  "Ho 
behaved  with  a  little  reverence,"  the  expression  is  positive,  and  implies 
a  degree  of  praise.  But  if  I  say,  "  He  behaved  with  little  reverence," 
the  expression  is  negative,  and  implies  a  degree  of  blame. 

5.  j1  has  sometimes  the  meaning  of  every  ox  each  ;  as,  twelve  shillings 
o  dozen;  two  hundred  pounds  o year  ,•  i.  e.  every  dozen,  every  year. 

6.  The  antecedent  to  a  restrictive  clause  is  preceded  by  the  definite  ar- 
ticle;  as,  "All  <Ac  pupils  </ia/ were  present  did  well." 

7.  The  is  sometimes  used  before  the  comparative  and  superlative  de- 
grees both  of  adverbs  and  adjectives  ;  as,  The  more  I  study  grammar  the 
better  I  like  it. 


128  ENGLISH    GKAMMAR.  §  81 

Rule  XXXII.     Continued. 
EXERCISES 

ON  THE  IMPROPER  USE  AND  OMISSION  OF  THE  ARTICLES. 

1.  Reason  was  given  to  a  man  to  control  his  passions. 
The  gold  is  corrupting.  A  man  is  the  noblest  work  of  the 
creation.  Wisest  and  best  men  are  sometimes  betrayed 
into  errors.  We  must  act  our  part  with  a  constancy,  though 
reward  of  our  constancy  be  distant.  There  are  some  evils 
of  life  which  e(|ually  aflect  prince  and  people.  Purity  has 
its  seat  in  the  heart,  but  extends  its  influence  over  so  much 
of  outward  conduct  as  to  form  the  great  and  material  part 
of  a  character.  At  worst  I  could  incur  but  a  gentle  repri- 
mand The  profligate  man  is  seldom  or  never  found  to 
be  the  good  husband,  the  good  father,  or  the  beneficent 
neighbour. 

2.  A  man  may  be  a  better  soldier  than  a  logician. 
There  is  much  truth  in  the  old  adage  that  fire  is  a  better 
servant  than  a  master.  He  is  not  so  good  a  poet  as  a  his- 
torian. 

3.  Thomson  the  watchmaker  and  the  jeweller  from  Lon- 
don, was  of  the  party.  A  red  and  a  white  flag  was  dis- 
played from  the  tower.  A  beautiful  stream  flows  between 
the  new  and  old  mansion.  A  hot  and  cold  spring  were 
found  in  the  same  neighbourhood.  The  young  and  old 
man  seem  to  be  on  good  terms.  The  bill  equally  concerns 
the  manufacturer  and  consumer. 

4.  He  has  been  much  censured  for  paying  a  little  atten- 
tion to  his  business.  So  bold  a  breach  of  order  called  for 
little  severity  in  punishing  the  ofiender. 

5.  A  shilling  for  every  dozen  is  a  moderate  price.  I 
would  not  undertake  to  walk  twenty  miles  each  day  for  three 
months.     A  guinea  every  week. 

6.  Persons  who  sufl'ered  by  this  calamity,  have  been 
much  commiserated.  Foreign  travel,  and  things  which  he 
nas  seen,  have  enlarged  his  views.  The  proprietors  are 
responsible  for  all  parcels  that  are  committed  to  their  care. 
All  persons  who  were  consulted,  were  of  this  opinion. 
Members  who  do  not  appear,  must  be  fined. 


§  S2.  SYNTAX,  129 

^  82.  Rule  XXXIII.  An  ellipsis  or  omission 
of  words  is  admissible,  when  they  can  be  supplied 
in  the  mind  with  such  certainti/  and  readiness  as 
not  to  obscure  the  sense.  Thus,  instead  of  sayinsr, 
He  was  a  learned  man,  and  he  was  a  wise  man,  and 
he  was  a  good  man ;  we  say,  He  was  a  learned,  wise, 
and  good  man. 

Obi.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  rule  proper  to  be  keptsteadily  in  view, 
tlial  the  fewer  liie  words  by  wbicli  we  can  express  our  ideas,  the  bet- 
ter, provided  the  meaning  be  brought  clearly  out. 

Rem.  The  auxiharies  of  the  cotnpound  tenses  are  often  used  alone, 
as,  We  have  done  it,  but  thou  hast  not ;  i.  e.  thou  hast  not  done  if. 

The  following  phrases  are  elliptical :  "  To  let  out  blood."  "  To  go 
a  hunting;"  that  is,  "To  go  on  a  hunting  excursion."  "I  dine  at 
one  o'clock  ;"  that  is,  "I  dine  at  one  of  the  clock." 

EXERCISES. 

He  sent  me  the  books  and  the  papers  which  he  promised. 
He  has  a  house  and  a  garden  in  the  country. — These  coun- 
sels were  the  dictates  of  virtue  and  the  dictates  of  tnie  ho- 
nour. Such  conduct  is  contrary  to  the  laws  of  (Jod,  and 
to  the  laws  of  man.  His  crimes  brought  him  into  extreme 
distress  and  into  extreme  peqilexity.  He  was  blessed 
with  an  affectionate  father  and  an  affectionate  mother 
His  reputation  and  his  estate  are  both  lost  by  gaming.  He 
is  temperate,  he  is  disinterested,  he  is  benevolent.  This 
is  the  man  whom  we  met  and  whom  we  invited  to  our 
house.  Genuine  virtue  supposes  our  benevolence  and 
our  usefulness  to  be  strengthened  and  to  be  confirmed  by 
principle.  Perseverance  in  laudable  pursuits  wiH  reward 
our  toils  and  will  produce  effect  beyond  our  expectation. 
We  often  commend  imprudently  as  well  as  censure  inijiiii- 
dently.  Changes  are  often  taking  place  in  men  and  m 
manners,  in  opinions  and  in  customs,  in  private  fortiinrs 
and  in  public  conduct.  He  insulted  every  man  and  every 
woman  in  the  company. 

(Rem.)  He  regards  his  word,  but  thou  dost  not  regard 
it.  They  must  be  punished,  and  they  shall  be  punished 
We  succeeded,  but  they  did  not  succeed. 


130  rNGLISII    GRAMMAR.  §  83. 

§83.  Rule  XXXIV.  An  ellipsis  is  not  allow- 
able when  it  ivoiild  obscure  the  sentence^  weaken  its 
force^  or  be  attended  with  an  impropriely  ;  for  ex- 
ample, "  We  speak  that  we  do  know,  and  testify 
that  we  have  seen,"  should  be,  "We  speak  that 
tvhich  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  which  we  have 
seen." 

Obs.  1.  In  general,  no  word  should  be  omitted  that  ig  necessary  to  the  full  and 
correct  construction,  or  even  harmony  of  a  sentence.  Articles,  pronouns,  and  pre- 
positions, should  always  be  repeated  when  the  words  with  which  they  stand  con 
nccted  are  used  emphatically.  Even  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  adverbs,  must 
often,  under  such  circumstances,  be  repeated  ;  as,  Not  only  the  year,  but  the  day 
and  the  hour  were  appointed. 

2.  It  is  generally  improper  (except  in  poetry,)  to  omit  the  antecedent  to  a  rela- 
tive ;  and  always  to  omit  a  relative  when  of  the  nominative  case. 

3.  The  article  should  be  repeated,  when  a  different  form  of  it  is  required;  as, 
A  horse  and  an  ass. 

EXERCISES. 

I  gladly  shunned  who  gladly  fled  from  me.  His  honour, 
interest,  religion,  were  all  embarked  in  this  undertaking. 
The  more  I  see  of  his  conduct  I  like  him  better.  It  is  not 
only  the  duty  but  interest  of  young  persons  to  be  studious 
and  diligent.  Without  firmness,  nothing  that  is  great  can 
be  undertaken  ;  that  is  difficult  or  hazardous,  accomplished. 
That  species  of  commerce  will  produce  great  gain  or  loss. 
Many  days  and  even  weeks  pass  away  unimproved.  The 
people  of  this  country  possess  a  healthy  climate  and  soil. 
I  have  purchased  a  house  and  orchard.  His  conduct  is 
not  scandalous,  and  that  is  the  best  can  be  said  of  it. 
The  captain  had  several  men  died  in  his  ship  of  scurvy. 
They  enjoy  also  a  free  constitution  and  laws.  That  is  a 
property  most  men  have,  or  at  least  may  attain.  *A  noble 
spirit  disdaineth  the  malice  of  fortune  ;  his  greatness  of 
soul  is  not  to  be  cast  down.  Charles  was  a  man  of  learn- 
ing, knowledge,  and  benevolence  ;  and  what  is  more,  a 
true  christian. 


*  "  A  noble  spirit,"  See,  should  be,  "  A  man  of  a  noble  spirit."    It  would  b« 
I  mnrooer  to  speak  of  the  soul  of  a  spirit. 


§  84. 


SYNTAX.  132 


§  84.     SYNTACTICAL  PARSING. 

In  syntactical  parsing,  the  pupil  should  be  directed  to  state  the 
parts  of  speech,  and  the  various  accidents  belonging  to  them,  as  di- 
rected in  §  39  ;  and  in  addition  to  this,  to  point  out  tlie  relation  in 
which  each  word  stands  to  others  with  which  it  is  connected  in  the 
sentence  according  to  the  Rules  of  Syntax.  After  stating  these, 
(which  should  always  b^  done  in  the  same  order,  and  in  as  ftxo 
words  as  possible,)  he  should  be  requested  to  assign  a  reason  for 
every  thing  contained  in  his  statement,  in  some  such  manner  as  tlie 
following. 

1.  Method  of  Syntactical  Parsing,  exemplified  in 
each  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

1.  is  an  Article,  definite,    (indefinite,)   here   put   before   the 

noun , 

(luest.  What  is  the  use  of  this  article  ?  why  definite  ?  ( — ^indefl- 
nite  ?) 

Ans.  It  is  put  before 1 1  shew  the  extent  of  its  meaning. 

Because  it  points  oui  a  particular  ,  (Because  it 

does  not,  &c.) 

2. is  a    JVbim,   masc.*   (fern,   neut.)   sing,   (pi.)   the    nom. 

(poss.  obj.) — is  the  nom.  to  the  verb (is  governed  by 

according  to  Rule ) 

Cluest.  How  do   you  know  it  is  a  noun  ? — masc.  ? — sing.  ? — tlie 

nom? 
Ans.  Because  it  is  the  name  of  a  thing, — is  of  the  male  sex, — de- 
notes but  one — is  the  subject  of  the  verb ,  or,  is  the 

person  (or  thing)  spoken  of. 

3.  is  an  Adjective,  positive  degree,  is  compared  regularly, 

(irregularly, — is  not  compared,)  qualifies 

*  In  parsing  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  it  is  quite  unnecessary  to  repent  the 
words,  "gender,"  "number,"  "  mood,"  "  tense  ;"  tlius,  masculine  gender,  sin- 
gular number,  &c. ;  tlie  meaning  beins  sufTicicntly  indicateil  by  the  terms,  m.-ucu 
line,  feminine,  neuter — sinuular,  plural — indicative,  potential,  &.C. — present,  past, 
future,  &c. ;  and  it  has  the  advantage  of  saving  much  time.  For  the  same  reasnn, 
it  may  be  proper  to  omit  the  terms,  "  proper"  and  "  common,"  before  nouns, 
and  the  conjugation  of  all  regular  verbs.  When  the  verb  is  passive,  parse  thus. 
"  A  verb  trans,  in  the  passive  voice,  regular,  irregular,"  &c.  See  ^  10,  Otw.  7  • 
and  also  in  the  following  "  Specimen,"  No.  2,  questions  may  be  put,  and  ai> 
swers  rendered  as  here. 


133  ENGLISH    CRAMMAK.  §  84. 

(liiest.  How  do  you  know  it  is  an  adjective?  (why  not  compar- 
ed?) 

^ns.  Because  it  expresses  a  quality  of Because  it  denotes,  &c., 

see  §  13,  Obs.  4. 

4.  is   a  Personal    Pronoun,   1st   person,  (2d   or  3d)   masc. 

(fem.)  sing,  tlicnom.  (poss.  obj.)  is  the  norn.  to (is 

gov'd  by R. ) 

Q,uesL  How  do  you  know  it  is  a  pronoun? — is  the  first  pcrs. ? 

(2d  ? — 3d  ?) — masc  ? — sing.  ? — the  nom.  ?     Decline  it. 
^ns.  Because  it  stands  instead  of  a  noun,  viz. ,  it  denotes  the 

person  speaking,  (spoken  to, — spoken  of,) — is  of  the  male 

sex, — denotes  one, — is  the  sulyect  of  the  verb 

——is  a  Relative  Pronoun,  1st.  pers.  (2d.  3d.)  mawc. — sing. — tiie 

nom.  ( — the   objective    governed    by R. ) — 

agrees  with  its  antecedent R.  xi.     "  The  relative 

agrees,  &c." 

Quesf.  How  do  you  know  it  is  a  relative?-  of  the  1st  pers.?  (2d? 
3d  ?)-masc  ? — sing.  ? — the  nom.  ? 

.^115.  Because  it  relates  to its    antecedent, Because    its 

antecedent  is  the  1st  pers.-(2d.-  -3d.) — is  masc. — is 
sing.     Because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb 

.•5. is  a.  Verb    trans.,    (intransitive)    (irre^.  conjugated  thus)  in  the 

— Icnse, — mood,  1st  pers,  (2d.  3d.) — sing,  (pi.)  agrees 

wi'h  its  nom. ;  Rule  I.  "A  verb  mu.^t  agree,  &c.'' 

Quest.  How  do  you  know  it  is  a  verb?  transitive?  (mtransitive  ?_) 
regular?  (irreg.  ?)  of  the  —  person? 

c4rt5.  Bec-iuse  it  affirms  of  its  nom. :  Because  it  expresses  an 

act  done  to  an  object,  or,  it  admits  an  objective  after  it, 
(intr.  because  it  does  not  express  an  act  done  to  an  ob- 
ject ;  or,  it  does  not  admit  an  objective  after  it)  "  reg." 
becanse  its  imperfect  tense  and  perfect  participle  end  in  ed 
(irreg.  because  they  do  not  end  in  ed)  "  1st  pers.  sing,  or 

pi,"  (2d  or  3d.  pers.  sing,  or  pi.)  because  its  nom. is 

in  the  1st  pers.,  &c.,  according  to  Rule  I.  "  A  verb  must 
agree,  fee" 

5.  .        is  an  Mverb,  and  modifies 


§  84.  SYNTAX.  138 

Q,uest.  How  do  you  know  it  is  an  adverb  ?  Is  it  compared  ?  com- 
pare it. 

^ns.  Because  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb adjec- 
tive   ,  &,c. 

''• is  a  Preposition.  Quest.  How  do  you  know?  ^^ns.  Bo- 
cause  it  expresses  the  relation  in  which  the  noun stands 

to  the  noun  ; (or  the  verb ). 

8*  's  an  Interjection,  Because  it  expresses  a  sudden  emotion 

9-  is  a    Conjunction,  Because  it  connects  the  words  

and  ■ ;  or  the  sentences and 

2.  SPECIMEN  OF  SYNTACTICAL  PARSING. 

Psalm  cxi.  10.  '*  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning 
of  wisdom,  and  a  good  understanding  have  all  they  that  do 
his  commandments  :  His  praise  endureth  forever." 

The  is  the  definite  article,  put  before /c«r. 

Fear  is  a  noun,  neuter,  singular,  and  is  the  nominative  to  (or  subject 
of)  is. 

Of  is  a  preposition,  it  expresses  the  relation  between  fear  and  L<rrd. 

Lord  is  a  noun,  masculine,  singular,  the  objective  governed  by  of. 
Rule  111.  "  Prepositions  govern,"  &c. 

ys  is  a  verb,  intrans",  irregular — am,  was,  been  ;  it    is  in   the  present, 
indicative,  third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its  nomina- 
tive/eac.     Rule  i.  "  A  verb  agrees,"  &c. 

Beginning  is  a  noun,  neuter,  singular,  in  the  nominative ;  it  is  put 
after  is,  in  the  same  case  with /ear.     Rule  xiii. 

Jind  is  a  conjunction,  (copulative  ;)  it  connects  the  two  simple  sen 
tences,  "  The  fear  of  the  Lord,"  &c.  and  "  a  good  under- 
standing," &c.     (The  connexion  here  being  between  the 
simple  sentences,  and  not  between  any  verbs,  or  nouns,  or 
pronouns,  in  them,  the  Rule  §  69  does  not  apply.) 

Jl  is  the  indefinite  article,  put  before  understanding. 

Good  is  an  adjective,  positive  degree,  qualifies  understanding,  and  ia 
compared  irregularly,  thus.  Good,  better,  best. 

Understanding  is  a  noun,  neuter,  singular,  in  the  objective,  governed 
by  have.    Rule  ii.  "  An  active  verb,''  &c. 
13 


134  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  ^  85 

flareis  a  verb  transitive,  irregular — liavo,  liad.liaJ  ; — in  the  present  indi- 
cative, active,  third  person  plural,  a^jreeing  with  they.  Rule  I. 
"A  verb  must  agree,"  &,c. 

AU  is  an  adjective  pronoun,  (iiidefiiiite;)  qualifies  they. 

They  is  a  substantive  pronoun,  third  person,  masculine,  plural,  in  the 
nominative ;  is  the  nominative  to  have,  and  stands  for  men. 
Rule  X.  It  is  thus  declined,  &c. 

That  is  a  relative  pronoun,  here  used  for  who,  according  to  Rule  xi. 
Rem.  3.     It  Ls  related  to  they  as  its  antecedent. 

Do  is  a  verb  transitive,  irregular — do,  did,  done; — it  is  in  the  present,  indi- 
cative, active,  third  person,  plural,  and  agrees  with  that. 
Rule  I.    "A  verb  must  agree,"  (fee. 

His  is  an  adjective  pronoun  (possessive,)  agrees  with  commandments. 

Commandments  is  a  noun,  neuter,  plural,  in  the  objective,  governed  by 
do.     Rule  II.  "  A    transitive  verb,"  &,c. 

Praise  is  a  noun,  neuter,  singular,  the  nominative ;  is  the  nominative 
to  endureth, 

Endureih  is  a  verb  intransitive,  regular, — in  the  present,  indicative,  ac- 
tive,— third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  praise.  Rule  I 
"A  verb  agrees,"  &c. 

Forever  is  an  adverb,  and  modifies  endureth.     Rule  xnv. 

§  85.     PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES. 

ON  THE  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

Note. — The  following  exercises,  after  being  corrected,  or  in  thf 
time  of  correcting,  may  be  used  as  exercises  in  Syntactical  Parsing. 

1.  John  writes  pretty.  I  shall  never  do  so  no  more. 
The  train  of  our  ideas  are  often  interrupted.  Was  you  pre- 
sent at  last  meeting?  He  need  not  be  in  so  much  haste. 
He  dare  not  act  otherwise  than  he  does.  Him  whom  they 
seek  is  in  the  house.  George  or  I  is  the  person.  They 
or  he  is  much  to  be  blamed.  The  troop  consist  of  fifty 
men.  Those  set  of  books  was  a  valuable  present.  That 
pillar  is  sixty  foot  high.  His  conduct  evinced  the  most 
extreme  vanity.  These  trees  are  remarkable  tall.  He 
acted  bolder  than  was  expected.  This  is  he  who  I  gave 
the  book  to.  Eliza  always  appears  amiably.  Who  do  you 
lodge  with  now?  He  was  born  at  London,  but  he  died  in 
Bath.     If  he  be  sincere  I  am  satisfied.     Her  father  and 


PROMIS.]  SYNTAX.  136 

her  were  at  church.  The  master  requested  him  and  I  to 
read  more  distinctly.  It  is  no  more  but  his  due.  Flat- 
terers flatter  as  long,  and  no  longer  than  they  have  expec- 
tations of  gain.  John  told  the  same  story  as  you  told. 
This  is  the  largest  tree  which  I  have  ever  seen. 

2.  Let  he  and  I  read  the  next  chapter.  She  is  free  of 
pain.  Thosesortof  dealings  are  unjust.  David  the  son  of 
Jesse  was  the  youngest  of  his  brothers.  You  was  very 
kind  to  him,  he  said.  Well,  says  I,  what  does  thou  think 
of  him  now  ?  James  is  one  of  those  boys  that  was  kept 
in  at  school,  for  bad  behaviour.  Thou,  James,  did  deny 
the  deed.  Neither  good  nor  evil  come  of  themselves. 
We  need  not  to  be  afraid.  He  expected  to  have  gained 
more  by  the  bargain.  You  should  drink  plenty  of  goat 
milk.  It  was  him  who  spoke  first.  Do  you  like  ass 
milk  ?  Is  it  me  that  you  mean  ?  Who  did  you  buy  your 
grammar  from  ?  If  one  takes  a  wrong  method  at  first 
setting  out,  it  will  lead  them  astray.  Neither  man  nor 
woman  were  present.  I  am  more  taller  than  you.  She 
is  the  same  lady  who  sang  so  sweetly.  After  the  most 
straitest  sect  of  our  religion,  I  lived  a  Pharisee.  Is  not 
thy  wickedness  great?  and  thine  iniquities  infinite? — 
There  was  more  sophists  than  one.  If  a  person  have 
lived  twenty  or  thirty  years,  he  should  have  some  expe- 
rience. If  this  were  his  meaning,  the  prediction  has  fail- 
ed.  Fidelity  and  truth  is  the  foundation  of  all  justice. 
His  associates  in  wickedness  will  not  fail  to  mark  the  al- 
teration  of  his  conduct.  Thy  rod  and  thy  staff  they  com- 
fort me. 

3.  And  when  they  had  lift  up  their  eyes,  they  saw  no 
man,  save  Jesus  only.  Strive  not  with  a  man  without 
cause,  if  he  have  done  thee  no  harm.  I  wrote  to,  and 
cautioned  the  captain  against  it.  Now  both  the  chief 
priests  and  Pharisees  had  given  a  commandment,  that  if 
any  man  knew  where  he  were,  he  should  show  it,  that 
they  might  take  him.  The  girl,  her  book  is  torn  in  pieces. 
It  is  not  me  who  he  is  in  love  with.  He  which  com- 
mands himself,  commands  the  whole  >vorld.  Nothing  is 
more  lovelier  than  virtue. 

4.  The  peoples  happiness  is  the  statesmans  honor. — 


136  ENGLISH    GEAMMAR.  [PBOMIS. 

Changed  to  a  worscr  shape  thou  canst  not  be.  I  Iiave 
drunk  no  spirituous  liquors  this  six  years.  He  is  taller  than 
me,  but  I  am  stronger  than  him.  Solid  peace  and  con- 
tentment  consists  neither  in  beauty  or  riches,  but  in  the 
favor  of  God.  After  who  is  the  King  of  Israel  come 
out?  The  reciprocations  of  love  and  friendship  between 
he  and  I,  have  been  many  and  sincere.  Abuse  of  mer- 
cies ripen  us  for  judgment.  Peter  and  John  is  not  at 
school  to-day.  Three  of  them  was  taken  into  custody. 
To  study  diligently,  and  behave  genteelly,  is  commenda- 
ble. The  enemies  who  we  have  most  to  fear  are  those 
of  our  own  hearts.  Regulus  was  reckoned  the  most  con- 
summate warrior  which  Rome  could  then  produce.  Sup- 
pose life  never  so  long,  fresh  accessions  of  knowledge  may 
still  be  made. 

.5.  Surely  thou  who  reads  so  much  in  the  Bible,  can  tell 
me  what  became  of  Elijah.  Neither  the  master  nor  the 
scholars  is  reading.  Trust  not  him,  whom,  you  know, 
is  dishonest.  I  love  no  interests  but  that  of  truth  and 
virtue.  Every  imagination  of  the  thoughts  of  the  heart 
are  evil  continually.  No  one  can  be  blamed  for  taking 
due  care  of  their  health.  They  crucified  him,  and  two 
others  with  him,  on  either  side  one,  and  Jesus  in  the 
midst.     None  can  be  blamed  for  taking  care  of  his  health. 

6.  I  have  read  Popes  Homer,  and  Drydens  Virgil.  He 
that  is  diligent  you  should  commend.  There  was  an 
earthquake  which  made  the  earth  to  tremble.  And  God 
said  to  Solomon,  Wisdom  and  knowledge  is  granted  unto 
thee,  &c.  I  cannot  commend  him  for  justifying  hisself 
when  he  knows  that  his  conduct  was  so  very  improper. 
He  was  very  much  made  on  at  school.  Though  he  were 
a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience  by  the  things  which  he 
suffered.  If  he  is  alone  tell  him  the  news  ;  but  if  there 
is  any  body  with  him,  do  not  tell  him.  They  ride  faster 
than  us.  Though  the  measure  be  mysterious,  it  is  wor- 
thy of  attention.  If  he  does  but  approve  my  endeavors, 
it  will  be  an  ample  reward.  Was  it  him  who  came  last  ? 
Yes,  it  was  him. 

For  ever  in  this  humble  cell, 
Let  thee  and  I  ray  fair  one  dwell. 


PROMIS.]  SYNTAX.  137 

7.  Every  man  should  act  suitable  to  his  character  and 
station  in  life.  His  arguments  were  exceeding  clear.  I 
only  spoke  three  words  on  that  subject.  The  ant  and  the 
bee  sets  a  good  example  before  dronish  boys.  Neither  m 
this  world,  neither  in  the  world  to  come.  Evil  communi- 
cations corrupts  good  manners.  Hannibal  was  one  of  the 
greatest  generals  whom  the  world  ever  saw.  The  middle 
station  of  life  seems  to  be  the  most  advantageously  situated 
for  gaining  of  wisdom. 

S.  These  are  the  rules  of  grammar,  by  the  observing 
which  you  may  avoid  mistakes.  The  king  conferred  upon 
him  the  title  of  a  duke.  My  exercises  are  not  well  wrote, 
I  do  not  hold  my  pen  well.  Grammar  teaches  us  to  speak 
proper.  She  accused  her  companion  for  having  betrayed 
her.  I  will  not  dissent  with  her.  Nothing  shall  make  me 
swerve  out  of  the  path  of  duty  and  honor.  Who  shall  I 
give  it  tol  Who  are  you  looking  for  1  It  is  a  diminution 
to,  or  a  derogation  of  their  judgment.  It  fell  into  their  no- 
tice or  cognizance.  She  values  herself  for  her  fortune. 
That  is  a  book  which  I  am  much  pleased  with.  I  have 
been  to  see  the  coronation,  and  a  fine  sight  it  was.  That 
picture  of  the  emperor's  is  a  very  exact  resemblance  of 
him.  Every  thing  that  we  here  enjoy,  change,  decay,  and 
come  to  an  end.     It  is  not  him  they  blame  so  much. 

9.  No  people  has  more  faults  than  they  that  pretend  to 
have  none.  The  laws  of  Draco  is  said  to  have  been  wrote 
with  blood.  It  is  so  clear,  or  so  obvious,  as  I  need  not 
explain  it.  She  taught  him  and  I  to  read.  The  more 
greater  a  bad  man's  accomplishments  are,  the  more  dan- 
gerous he  is  to  society,  and  the  more  less  fit  for  a  compa- 
nion. Each  has  their  own  faults,  and  every  one  should 
endeavor  to  correct  their  own.  Let  your  promises  be  few. 
and  such  that  you  can  perform. 

10.  His  being  at  an  enmity  with  Caesar  and  Antony  were 
the  cause  of  perpetual  discord.  Their  being  forced  to  their 
books  in  an  age  at  enmity  with  all  restraint,  have  been  the 
reason  why  many  have  hated  books  all  their  lives.  There 
was  a  cotTee-house  at  that  end  of  the  town,  in  which  seve- 
ral gentlemen  used  to  meet  of  an  evening.  Do  not  despise 
the  state  of  the  poor,  lest  it  becomes  your  own  condition. 

13* 


138  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [pROMIg. 

It  was  his  duty  to  have  interposed  his  authority  in  an  a  flair 
ofso  much  importance.  He  spent  his  whole  lil'e  in  the  doing 
good.  Every  gentleman  who  frequented  the  house,  and 
conversed  with  the  erectors  of  this  occasional  club,  were 
invited  to  pass  an  evening  when  they  thought  lit.  The 
winter  has  not  been  so  severe  as  we  expected  it  to  have 
been.  The  rest  (of  the  stars)  in  circuit  walls  this  universe. 
Sir,  if  thou  have  borne  him  hence,  tell  me  where  thou  hast 
laid  him. 

11.  A  lampoon,  or  a  satire,  does  not  carry  in  them  job- 
bery or  murder.  She  and  you  were  not  mistaken  in  her 
conjectures.  My  sister  and  I,  as  well  as  my  brother,  are 
employed  in  their  respective  occupations.  He  repents 
him  of  that  indiscreet  action.  It  was  me,  and  not  him, 
that  wrote  it.  Art  thou  him  ?  I  shall  take  care  that  no 
one  shall  suffer  no  injury.  I  am  a  man  who  approves  of 
wholesome  discipline,  and  who  recommend  it  to  others ; 
but  I  am  not  a  person  who  promotes  severity,  or  who  ob- 
ject to  mild  and  generous  treatment.  This  Jackanapes 
has  hit  me  in  a  right  place  enough.  Prosperity,  as  truly 
asserted  by  Seneca,  it  very  much  obstructs  the  knowledge 
of  ourselves.  To  do  to  others  as  we  would  that  they 
should  do  to  us,  it  is  our  duty.  This  grammar  was  pur- 
chased at  Ogle's  the  bookseller's.  The  council  was  not 
unanimous. 

12.  Who  spilt  the  ink  upon  the  table  ?  Him.  Who  lost 
this  book  1  Me.  Whose  pen  is  this  1  Johns.  There  is 
in  fact  no  impersonal  verbs  in  any  language.  And  he 
spitted  on  the  ground  and  anointed  his  eyes.  Had  I  never 
seen  ye,  I  had  never  known  ye.  The  ship  Mary  and  Ann 
were  restored  to  their  owners.  If  we  consult  the  improve- 
ment of  mind,  or  the  health  of  body,  it  is  w-ell  known  exer- 
cise is  the  great  instrument  for  promoting  both.  A  man 
may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well  as 
read  them  in  a  description. 

13.  I  had  no  sooner  placed  her  at  my  right  hand,  by  the 
fire,  but  she  opened  to  me  the  reason  of  her  visit.  A  pru- 
dent wife,  she  shall  be  blessed.  The  house  you  speak  of, 
it  cost  me  five  hundred  pounds.  Did  I  not  tell  thee,  O 
thee  infamous  wretch !  that  thou  wouldsf  brins:  me  to  ruin? 


PROMIS.]  SYNTAX.  139 

Not  only  tho  counsel's  and  attorney's,  but  the  judge's  opi- 
nion also,  favored  his  cause.  It  was  the  men's,  women's, 
and  children's  lot,  to  suffer  grcfit  calamities.  That  is  the 
eldest  son  of  the  King  of  England's.  Lord  Feversham's 
the  general's  tent.  This  palace  had  been  the  (Trand  Sul- 
tan's Mahomet's.  They  did  not  every  man  cast  away  the 
abomination  of  their  eyes. 

14.  *I  am  purposed.  He  is  arrived.  They  were  de- 
serted from  their  regiment.  Whose  works  are  these? 
They  are  Cicero,  the  most  eloquent  of  men's.  The  mighty 
rivals  are  now  at  length  agreed.  The  time  of  William 
making  the  experiment,  at  length  arrived.  If  we  alter  the 
situation  of  any  of  the  words,  we  shall  presently  be  sensi- 
ble of  the  melody  suffering.  This  i)ictiue  of  the  king's 
does  not  much  resemble  him.  These  pictures  of  the  king 
were  sent  to  him  from  Italy.  He  who  committed  the  of- 
fence, thou  shouldst  correct,  not  I,  who  am  innocent. 

15.  But,  Thomas,  one  of  the  twelve,  called  Didymus, 
was  not  with  them  when  Jesus  came.  I  offer  observa- 
tions, that  a  long  and  chequered  pilgrimage  have  enabled 
me  to  make  on  man.  After  I  visited  I'^uropc,  1  returned 
to  America.  Clelia  is  a  vain  woman,  whom,  if  we  do  not 
(latter,  she  will  be  disgusted.  In  his  conduct  was  treach- 
ery, and  in  his  words  faithless  professions.  The  orators 
(lid  not  forget  to  enlarge  themselves  on  so  popular  a  sub- 
ject. He  acted  conformable  with  his  instructions,  and  can- 
not be  censured  justly. 

KJ.  No  person  could  s[>eak  stronger  on  this  subject,  nor 
behave  nobler,  than  our  young  advocate,  tor  the  cause  of 
toleration.  They  were  studious  to  ingratiate  with  those 
who  it  was  dishonoral)le  to  favor.  The  house  framed  a 
remonstrance,  where  they  spoke  with  great  freedom  of  the 
king's  prerogative.  Neither  tlalter  or  contemn  the  rich  or 
the  great.  Many  would  exchange  gladly  their  honors, 
beauty,  and  riches,  for  that  more  (piiet  and  humbler  station, 
which  thou  art  now  dissatisfied  with.     High  hopes,  and 


*  Rule — It  is  improper  to  use  a  neuter  verb  iti  the  pa.tsicc  form.     I  hus,  1  aiu 

nuriiosed— He  is  arrived  ;  sliould  be,   I  have  purposed— II''  has  iirrivful Froio 

iWs  rule  then' arcanunihcrofescoptions;  for  itis  allo\vubl<j  toeay,  Uc  u- come. 
t>Wi  M  gone,  &.C.    ^1  49,  II. 


140  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [PROMIS, 

florid  views,  is  a  great  enemy  to  tranquillity.  Many  per- 
sons will  not  believe  but  what  they  are  free  from  prejudices. 
I  will  lay  me  down  in  peace,  and  take  my  rest.  This  word 
I  have  only  found  in  Spencer.  The  king  being  apprized 
of  the  conspiracy,  he  fled  from  .lerusalem. 

17.  A  too  great  variety  of  studies  dissipate  and  weaken 
the  mind.  James  was  resolved  to  not  indulge  himself  in 
such  a  cruel  amusement.  They  admired  the  country- 
man's, as  they  called  him,  candor  and  uprightness.  The 
pleasure  or  pain  of  one  passion,  differ  from  those  of  another. 
The  court  of  Spain,  who  gave  the  order,  were  not  aware  of 
the  consequences.  There  was  much  spoke  and  wrote  on 
each  side  of  the  question  ;  but  I  have  chose  to  suspend  my 
decision. 

18.  Religion  raises  men  above  themselves  ;  irreligion 
sinks  them  beneath  the  brutes ;  that  binds  them  down  to  a 
poor  pitiable  speck  of  perishable  earth  ;  this  opens  for  them 
a  prospect  to  the  skies.  Temperance  and  exercise,  how- 
soever little  they  may  be  regarded,  they  are  the  best  means 
of  preserving  health.  To  despise  others  on  account  of 
their  poverty,  or  to  value  ourselves  for  our  wealth,  are  dis- 
positions highly  culpable.  This  task  was  the  easier  per- 
formed, from  the  cheerfulness  with  which  he  engaged 
in  it.  These  counsels  were  the  dictates  of  virtue,  and  the 
dictates  of  true  honor.  As  his  misfortunes  were  the  fruit 
of  his  own  obstinacy,  a  few  persons  pitied  him.  And  they 
were  judged  every  man  according  to  their  works.  Riches 
is  the  bane  of  human  happiness.  I  wrote  to  my  brother 
before  I  received  his  letter. 

19.  When  Garrick  appeared,  Peter  was  for  some  time 
in  doubt  whether  it  could  be  him  or  not.  Are  you  living 
contented  in  spiritual  darkness  ?  The  company  was  very 
numerous.  Shall  the  throne  of  iniquity  have  fellowship 
with  thee,  which  frameth  mischief  by  a  law  1  Where 
is  the  security  that  evil  habits  will  be  ever  broken  ?  They 
each  bring  material  to  the  place.  Nor  let  no  comforter 
delight  my  ear.  She  was  six  years  older  than  him. 
They  were  obliged  to  contribute  more  than  us.  The  Ba- 
rons  had  litfle  more  to  rely  on,  besides  the  power  of  their 
families.     The  sewers    (shores)  must  be  kept  so  clear, 


PROMIS.]  SYNTAX.  ]41 

as  the  water  may  run  away.  Such  among  us  who  fol- 
low  that  profession.  No  body  is  so  sanguine  to  hope  for 
it.  She  behaved  unkinder  than  I  expected.  Agreeable 
to  your  request  I  send  this  letter.  She  is  exceeding  fair. 
Thomas  is  not  as  docile  as  his  sister.  There  was  no 
other  book  but  this.  He  died  by  a  fever.  Among  wlioni 
was  Mary  Magdalene,  and  Mary  the  mother  of  James. 
My  sister  and  I  waited  till  they  were  called.  The  army 
were  drawn  up  in  haste.  The  public  is  respectfully  in- 
formed  that,  &;c.  The  friends  a^d  amusements  wiiich 
he  preferred  corrupted  his  morals.  Each  must  answer 
for  themselves.  Henry,  though  at  first  he  showed  an  un- 
willingness, yet  afterwards  he  granted  his  request. 

20.  Him  and  her  live  very  happily  together.  She  in- 
vited Jane  and  I  to  see  her  new  dress.  She  uttered  such 
cries  that  pierced  the  heart  of  every  one  who  heard  them. 
Maria  is  not  as  clever  as  her  sister  Ann.  Though  he 
promises  ever  so  solemnly,  I  will  not  believe  him.  The 
full  moon  was  no  sooner  up,  in  all  its  brightness,  but  he 
opened  to  them  the  gate  of  paradise.  It  rendered  the 
progress  very  slow  of  the  new  invention.  This  book  is 
Thomas',  that  is  James'.  Socrates's  wisdom  has  been 
the  subject  of  many  a  conversation.  Fare  thee  well, 
James.  Who,  who  has  the  judgment  of  a  man,  would 
have  drawn  such  an  inference  ?  George  was  the  most 
diligent  scholar  whom  I  ever  knew.  I  have  observed 
some  children  to  use  deceit.  He  durst  not  to  displease 
his  master.  The  hopeless  delinquents  might,  each  in  tiieir 
turn,  adopt  the  expostulatory  language  of  Job.  Several 
of  our  English  words,  some  centuries  ago,  had  different 
meanings  to  those  they  have  now.  And  I  was  afraid, 
and  went  and  hid  thy  talent  in  the  earth  ;  lo,  there  thou 
hast  that  is  thine.  With  this  booty  he  made  ofl'  to  a  dis- 
tant part  of  the  country,  where  he  had  reason  to  believe 
that  neither  he  nor  his  master  were  known.  Thine  is 
the  kingdom,  the  power,  and  the  glory.  I  have  been  at 
London. 

21.  Which  of  the  two  masters,  says  Seneca,  shall  wo 
most  esteem  ? — he  who  strives  to  correct  his  scholars  by 
pnident  advice  and  motives  of  honor,  or  another  who  will 
lash  them  severely  for  not  repeating  their  lessons  as  they 


142  ENGLISH    GRAMMAB.  fPBOMIS. 

ought  ?  The  blessing  of  the  Lord  it  maketh  rich,  and 
he  addeth  no  sorrow  with  it.  For  if  there  be  first  a  wil- 
ling mind,  it  is  accepted  according  to  that  a  man  hath, 
and  not  according  to  that  he  hath  not.  If  a  brother  or 
a  sister  be  naked  and  destitute  of  daily  food,  and  one  of 
you  say  unto  them,  Depart  in  peace,  be  ye  warmed  and 
filled ;  notwithstanding  if  ye  give  them  not  those  things 
which  are  needful  to  the  body  ;  what  doth  it  profit  ? 

22.  But  she  always  behaved  with  great  severity  to 
her  maids ;  and  if  any  of  them  were  negligent  of  their 
duty,  or  made  a  slip  in  their  conduct,  nothing  would  serve 
her  but  burying  the  poor  girls  alive.  He  had  no  master 
to  instruct  him  ;  he  had  read  nothing  but  the  writings  of 
Moses  and  the  prophets,  and  had  received  no  lessons  from 
the  Socrates's,*  the  Plato's,  and  the  Confucius's  of  the 
age.  They  that  honor  me,  I  will  honor.  For  the  poor 
always  ye  have  with  you. 

23.  The  first  Christians  of  the  Gentile  world  made  a 
simple  and  entire  transition  from  a  state  as  bad,  if  not 
worse,  than  that  of  entire  ignorance,  to  the  Christianity 
of  the  New  Testament. 

And  he  said  unto  Gideon,  every  one  that  lappetli  of 
the  water  with  his  tongue,  as  a  dog  lappeth,  him  shall 
thou  set  by  himself. 

The  duke  had  not  behaved  with  that  loyalty  as  was 
expected. 

Milton  seems  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  his 
own  genius,  and  to  know  what  it  was  that  nature  had 
bestowed  upon  him  more  bountifully  than  upon  others. 

24.  And  on  the  morrow,  because  he  would  have  known 
the  certainty  wherefore  he  was  accused  f  by  the  Jews, 
he  loosed  him  from  his  bonds. 

Here  rages  force,  here  tremble  flight  and  fear, 
Here  stormed  contention,  and  here  fury  frowned. 
The  Cretan  javelin  reached  him  from  afar, 
And  pierced  his  shoulder  as  he  mounts  his  car. 

Nor  is  it  then  a  welcome  guest,  affording  only  an  uneasy 

*  The  Possessive  case  must  not  be  used  for  the  plural  number.  In  this  quo- 
tation from  Baron  Haller's  Letters  to  his  Daughter,  the  proper  names  should  have 
been  pluralized  like  common  nouns ;  thus,  From  tlie  Socrateses,  tlio  Plaloes,  antf 
the  Confuciiises  of  the  age. 

t  jlccuse  requires  of  before  ihe  crime,  and  by  before  the  person  accusing. 


PKoarrs.]  stntax. 


14S 


sensation,  and  brings  always  with  it  a  mixture  of  concern 
and  compassion. 

He  only*  promised  me  a  loan  of  the  book  for  two  days. 
I  was  once  thinking  to  have  written  a  poem. 

25.  A  very  slow  child  will  often  be  found  to  get  lessons 
by  heart  as  soon  as,  nay  sometimes  sooner,  than  one  who 
is  ten  times  as  intelligent. 

It  is  then  from  a  cultivation  of  the  perceptive  faculties, 
that  we  only  can  attain  those  powers  of  conception  which 
are  essential  to  taste. 

No  man  is  fit  for  free  conversation  for  the  inquiry  after 
truth,  if  he  be  exceedingly  reserved  ;  if  he  be  haughty 
and  proud  of  his  knowledge  ;  if  he  be  positive  and  dog- 
matical in  his  opinions ;  iC  he  be  one  who  always  affects 
to  outshine  all  the  company  ;  if  he  be  fretful  and  peevish ; 
if  he  aflect  wit,  and  is  full  of  puns,  or  quirks,  or  quibbles. 

26.  Conversation  is  the  business,  and  let  every  one  that 
please  add  their  opinion  freely. 

The  mean  suspicious  wretch  whose  bolted  door 
Ne'er  moved  in  pity  to  the  wandering  poor; 
With  him  I  left  the  cup  to  teach  his  mind, 
That  heaven  can  bless  if  mortals  will  be  kind. 

There  are  many  more  shining  qualities  in  the  mind  of  man, 
but  there  is  none  so  useful  as  discretion. 

Mr.  Lock  having  been  introduced  by  Lord  Shaftsbury 
to  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  and  Lord  Halfax,  these  three 
noblemen,  instead  o(  conversing  with  the  philosopher  on 
hterary  subjects,  in  a  very  short  time  sat  down  to  cards. 

HAD   ARRAXCKMKVr. 

27.  It  is  your  light  fanta-stic  fools,  who  have  neither 
lieads  nor  hearts,  in  both  sexes,  who,  by  dressing  their 
bodies  out  of  all  shape,  render  themselves  ridiculous  and 
contemptible. 

And  how  can  brethren  hope  to  partake  of  their  parent's 
blessing  that  curse  each  other. 

The  superiority  of  others  over  us,  though  in  trivial  con- 
cerns, never  fails  to  mortify  our  vanity,  and  give  us  vex- 
ation, as  Nicol  admirably  observes. 


*  This  sentence  expresses  one  nieanini;  as  it  stands.    It  may  be  made  (oazpnai 
oUier  four  by  placing  only  after  me,  or  loan,  or  book,  or  dnj/t. 


144  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  (PROillS. 

Likewise  also  the  chief  priests,  mockinfj,  said  lunong 
themselves,  with  the  scribes,  lie  saved  others  ;  himself  he 
cannot  save. 

Noah,  for  his  godliness,  and  his  family,  were  the  only 
persons  preserved  from  the  Hood. 

It  is  an  unanswerable  arjrument  of  a  very  refined  age, 
the  wonderful  civilities  that  have  passed  between  the  nation 
of  authors,  and  that  of  readers. 

And  they  said  among  themselves,  who  shall  roll  us  away 
the  stone  from  the  door  of  the  sepulchre.  And  when  they 
had  looked,  they  saw  that  the  stone  was  rolled  away  :  for 
it  was  very  great. 

A  great  stone  that  I  happened  to  find,  after  a  long  search, 
by  the  sea-shore,  served  me  for  an  anchor. 

It  is  true  what  he  says,  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the 
point. 

BAD  AKRANGEMEXT.* 

28.  The  senate  of  Rome  ordered  that  no  part  of  it 
should  be  rebuilt ;  it  was  demolished  to  the  ground,  so 
that  travellers  are  unable  to  say  where  Carthage  stood  at 
this  day. 

Thus  ended  the  war  with  Antiochus,  twelve  years  after 
the  second  Punic  war,  and  two  after  it  had  been  begvm. 

Upon  the  death  of  Claudius,  the  young  Emperor  Ne- 
ro pronounced  his  funeral  oration,  and  he  was  canonized 
among  the  gods,  who  scarcely  deserved  the  name  of  a 
man. 

Galerius  abated  much  of  his  severities  against  the  Chris- 
tians on  his  death-bed,  and  revoked  those  edicts  which  he 
had  formerly  published,  tending  to  their  persecution,  a  little 
before  his  death. 

The  first  care  of  Aurelius  was  to  many  his  daughter 
Lucilla  once  more  to  Claudius  Pompeianus,  a  man  of  mo- 
derate fortune,  &c. 

But  at  length,  having  made  his  guards  accomplices  in 
their  design,  they  set  upon  Maximin  while  he  slept  at 
noon  in  his  tent,  and  slew  both  him  and  his  son,  whom 


*  Tlie  exercises  under  this  head  are  all  extracted  from  the  octavo  edition  of 
Goldsmith's  Roman  History,  from  which  many  more  might  be  obtained 


§  88-  SYNTAX.  145 

he  had  made  his  partner  in  the  empire,  without  any  op- 
position. 

Aurelian  defeated  the  Marcomanni,  a  fierce  and  terri- 
ble nation  of  Germany,  that  had  invaded  Ilaly,  in  three 
several  engagements. 

AMBIGUITY. 

29.  You  suppose  him  younger  than  I. 

This  may  mean,  either  that  you  suppose  him  younger  than  I  am, 
or  that  you  suppose  him  to  be  younger  than  I  suppose  him  to  be. 

Parmenio  had  served,  with  great  fidelity,  Philip,  the 
father  of  Alexander,  as  well  as  himself,  for  whom  he  first 
opened  the  way  into  Asia. 

Here  we  are  apt  to  suppose  the  word  himself  refers  to  Parmenio, 
and  means  that  he  had  not  only  served  Philip,  but  he  bad  served 
himself  at  the  same  time.  This,  ho^vcver,  is  not  tiie  meaning  of  the 
passage.  If  we  arrange  it  thus,  the  meaning  will  appear.  "Parme- 
nio had  not  only  served  Philip  the  father  of  Alexander  with  great 
fidelity,  but  he  had  sen'ed  Alexander  himself,  and  was  the  first  that 
opened  the  way  for  him  into  Asia." 

Belisarius  was  general  of  all  the  forces  under  the  em- 
peror Justinian  the  First,  a  man  of  rare  valor. 

Who  was  a  man  of  rare  valor?  The  emperor  Justinian  wc 
should  suppose,  from  the  arrangement  of  the  words  ;  but  this  is  not 
the  case,  for  it  was  Belisarius.  The  sentence  should  have  stood 
thus,  "  Belisarius,  a  man  of  rare  valor,  was  general  of  all  the  forces 
under  the  emperor  Justinian  the  First." 

Lisias  promised  to  his  father  never  to  abandon  his 
friends. 

Whether  were  they  his  oitm  friends  or  his  father's  whom  Lisias 
promised  never  to  abandon  ?  If  his  oirn,  it  should  be,  Lisias  pro- 
mised and  said  to  his  father,  I  will  never  abandon  my  friends.  If  hi.n 
father^s,  it  should  be,  Lisias  promised  and  said  to  his  father,  I  will 
never  abandon  'ffour  friends. 

§  86.     MISCELLANEOUS  OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Many  writers  use  a  plural  noun  after  the  second  of 
two  niimeral  adjectives,  thus,  "  The  first  and  second  pages 
are  torn."  According  to  analoey  it  should  rather  be. 
The  first  and  second  page.  Thus  we  say,  "  The  new 
and  the  old  world,"  "  Ancient  and  modern  history,"  <kc. 
14 


J48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  86. 

2,  Another^ — One, — Every. 

Another  corresponds  to  one ;  hut  not  to  some,  nor  to 
every.  Tims,  "  liiinded  down  from  every  writer  of  verses 
to  anolher,^^  should  ha,  "  From  one  writer  of  verses  to 
another."  "  At  .?omc  hour  or  another"  should  be,  "  At 
some  hour  or  other." 

One  is  often  used  in  familiar  phrases,  (like  on  in 
French.)  for  we,  or  any  one  of  us,  indiscriminately  ;  thus, 
"One  is  often  more  influenced  by  example  than  by  pre- 
cept." The  verb  and  pronoun  with  which  one  agrees, 
should  be  singular;  Thus,  "If  one  take  a  wrong  method 
at  first,  it  will  lead  them  astray  ;"  should  be,  "  it  will 
lead  one  astray,  or  him  astray. 

3.  AsfolloiDs, — As  regards, — As  appears,  ^c. 

Dr.  Campbell  and  Mr.  Murray  regard  these,  and  seve- 
ral other  expressions  of  a  similar  kind,  as  impersonal 
verbs,  and  are  of  opinion  that  they  should  always  be  used 
in  the  singular.  This,  however,  is  contrary  to  the  es- 
tablished  usage  of  our  best  writci-s,  who  frequently  use 
them  in  the  plural  form  ;  as,  "  The  circumstances  were 
as  follow."  Other  Grammarians,  and  particularly  Dr. 
Crom.bie,  (Etymology  p.  389  et  seq.)  consider  as  to  be 
a  relative  pronn\in,  and  that  the  verb  following  it  should 
be  singular  or  plural,  according  as  its  antecedent  is  in  the 
singular  or  plural  number.  Thus,  "  His  description  was  as 
follows,"  i.  e.  "  was  this  which  follows."  "  His  words 
were  as  follov/,"  i.  e.  "  were  those  which  follow."  Nei- 
ther of  these  explanations  seems  to  be  entirely  satisfac- 
tory. It  is  perhaps  better  to  regard  such  phrases  as  ellip- 
tical, and  in  parsing  to  supply  the  ellipsis  thus,  "The 
words  were  such  as  those  which  follow,"  or,  "  were  the 
same  as  those  which  follow." 

As  concerns,  as  regards,  used  commonly  in  the  singu- 
lar,  are  also  elliptical,  and  may  be  supplied  thus,  "As  it 
concerns,"  or  "As  far  as  it  concerns,  regards,"  «fcc.,  as 
(it)  appears,  is  always  in  the  singular.  In  the  plural, 
the  noun  or  pronoun  is  commonly  expressed  thus,  "  These 
things  as  they  "concern,"  or,  "  as  far  as  they  concern  us" 
— or,  "  As  far  as  these  things  concern  us,"  ikc.  In  this 
way,  there  is  no  necessity  for  considering  these  exprcs- 


§  86.  SYNTAX.  147 

sions  as  impersonal  verbs,  nor  for  depriving  as  of  its  con- 
junctive character. 

4.  So  and  Such. 

When  we  refer  to  the  species  or  nature  of  a  thine,  (he 
word  such  is  properly  applied  ;  as,  "  Such  a  temper  is 
seldom  found."  But  when  degree  is  sianified,  we  use  the 
word  so;  as,  "  <So  bad  a  temper  is  seldom  found."  Yet 
so  is  hardly  ever  used  before  an  adjective  followed  by  a 
plural  noun.  In  this  case,  such  is  used  instead  of  it,  to 
express  degree.  Thus,  we  say,  "  Such  beautiful  fluwers  I 
have  seldom  seen,"  not,  "  so  beautiful  flowers."  Still  it 
would  be  correct  to  say,  "  I  have  never  seen  flowers  so 
beautiful." 

5,  Disappointed  of, — Disappointed  in. 

We  are  disappointed  of  a  thinij  when  we  expect  it  and 

do  not  get  it — and  disappointed  in  it,  when  we  have  it  and 

it  does  not  answer  our  expectations.     Hence  a  person 

may  be  disappointed  zm  that  which  he  is  not  disappointed  of. 

6.    Taste  of,  and  Taste  for. 

A  taste  of  a  thing,  implies  actual  enjoyment  of  it ;  but  a 
taste  for  it,  implies  only  capacity  for  enjoyment  ;  as, 
"  When  we  have  had  a  true  taste  of  the  pleasures  of  virtue, 
we  can  have  no  relish  for  those  of  vice."  "  He  had  a  taste 
for  such  studies,  and  pursued  them  earnestly." 
7.  Position  of  Adjectives. 

Adjectives  should  be  placed  next  their  substantives 
Thus,  it  is  incorrect  to  say,  "a  new  pair  of  shoes,"  "a 
fine  field  of  corn,''  "  a  good  glass  of  wine,"  «kc.  because 
the  adjectives  in  these  sentences  qualify  "shoes,"  "corn," 
"  wine,"  and  not  "  pair,"  "  field,"  "  glass,"  with  which  they 
are  joined.  The  phrases  should  be,  "  A  pair  of  new  shoes." 
"A  field  of  fine  corn."  "  A  glass  of  good  wine." 
8.  But  that. 

But  is  oflen  improperly  used  before  tJuit,  after  words 
which  imply  doubt  or  fear  ;  as,  "  1  do\ibt  not  but  tfuit  he 
will  fulfil  his  promise."  This  would  seem  to  say,  "  I  doubt 
nothing  save  one  thing,  namely,  that  he  will  fulfil  his  pro- 
mise ;  "  whereas,  that  is  the  very  thing  not  doubted.  Re- 
move the  hut,  and  you  preserve  the  sense. 


148  ENGLISH    GKAMltfAS.  §  86 

9.   Older,  Oldest, — Elder,  Eldest. 
Older  and  oldest  refer  to  maturity  of  age,  elder  and  eldest 
to  priority  of  right  by  birth.     Thus,    "  llotner  is  an  oldei 
author  than  Virgil."     "  Being  the  eldest  of  the  family,  ho 
succeeded  to  the  estate." 

10.  Farther  and  Farthest, — Further  and  Furthest. 
Farther  and  farthest  denote  place  or  distance  :  Further 
and  fwthest,  quantity  or  addition  ;  as,  "  The  farther  they 
advanced,  the  more  interesting  was  the  scene."  "  I  have 
nothing  further  to  say  on  this  subject."  Farther  is  the 
comparative,  and  farthest^  the  superlative  of  far ;  Further 
m\d  furthest,  of  fore  or  forth. 

11.  Later,  latest, — Latter,  last, — Next,  nearest. 

Later  and  latest,  compared  from  late,  have  respect  to 
time  ;  latter  and  last,  to  place  or  position,  and  are  employed 
^vithout  so  direct  a  reference  to  comparison.     Next  refers 
either  to  time  or  place  ;  nearest,  to  place  only. 
12.  Past,  passed. 

Past  is  an  adjective ;  passed,  the  past  tense  or  perfect 
participle  of  the  verb,  and  they  ought  not,  as  is  frequently 
done,  to  be  confounded  with  each  other. 
13.  La^,  lie, — *S'e^,  sit. 

Lay  and  lie  are  distinct  in  meaning  and  application,  and 
cannot  be  used  indiscriminately.  The  use  of  the  former 
for  the  latter  is  an  error  exceedingly  prevalent,  and  should 
be  corrected.  Thus  we  constantly  hear  such  expressions 
as,  "  It  lays  on  the  table."  "  It  laid  there  yesterday." 
Lie  is  a  neuter  verb  ;  Lay  is  active,  and  means  to  male  lie. 
The  past  tense  of  lie,  is  lay,  and  perf.  participle,  lain.  The 
past  tense  of  lay,  is  laid,  and  perf.  participle,  laid.  Thus, 
The  bricklayer  lays  bricks,  and  being  laid,  they  lie.  The 
book  lies  on  the  shelf;  it  was  laid  there  a  week  ago,  and 
has  lain  ever  since.  The  Scune  distinction  should  be  ob- 
served between  set  and  sit. 

14.  "  Be  that  as  it  will"  is  a  common,  but  inaccurate 
expression.  It  ought  to  be,  "  Be  that  as  it  may,"  or  may 
have  been. 

15.  **  Seldom  or  ever"  is  not  correct.  It  should  be 
seldom  or  riever ;  or,  seldom  if  ever. 


87. 


SYNTAX. 


149 


§  87.    A  LIST  OP  IMPROPER  EXPRESSIONS. 

SELECTED   CHIEFI.T    FROM    PICKERING'S    VOCABULART. 


I  should  admire  to  go  to  sea. 

1  a/lot  upon  going. 

The  alone  God.    Tile  alone  motire. 

I  an't ;  you  a/i't ;  he  an't,  &c. 

Jiny  manner  of  means. 

His  discourse  was  approbated. 

To  sell  at  auct'oii. 

rie  was  walking  back  and  forth. 

Part  were  good,  the  balance  were  bad. 

His  argument  was  based  on  tliis  faet. 

Where  be  you  1     Here  I  be. 

The  money  was  ordered  paid. 

I  would  not  belittle  or  demean  myself. 

He  was  paid  for  liis  betterments. 

1  calculate  to  leave  town  soon. 

A  chunk  of  liread. 

A  clever*  Iiousfi. 

He  conducts  well. 

He  is  considerable  of  a  scholar. 

His  farm  was  convenient  to  mine. 

The  crcnturr.'T'i  must  be  sent  to  pasture. 

Curious  appli's;  curious  cider,  &c. 

He  is  a  decent  scholar,  writer. 

Her  situation  was  distressing  to  a  degree 

Such  conduct  was  vAy  derogatory. 

A  total  destitution  of  cap>icity. 

The  United  States,  or  either  of  them. 

Kqually  as  well — as  good,  &c. 

Mr.  A B ,  Es<j. 

I  thinS  i-t  will  eventuate  in  this. 
I  expect  I  they  Ik;. 
I  expect  he  must  have  died  long  ago. 
These  thiniis  are  in  a  bad^i. 
Will  you  fix  these  things  for  roc  1 
Firstli/,  secondly,  thirdly,  &c. 
How  do  your  folks  do  1 
What  (lofolits  thmk  of  it? 
Will  you^o  ft'/  and  dine  with  me? 
Talents  of  the  liighest  grade. 
I)o  you  love  |)l;iy  ?     I  g^iess  t  '  do. 
Yoii  will  tell  another  guess  (guise;  sto- 
ry soon. 
We  may  Aojue  the  assistance  of  God. 
A  horse  colt  ;  A  mare  colt. 
It  would  illy  accord. 
When  did  you  come  in  town. 

In  good  case  ;  or  kelter. 
Where  do  you  keep  ?—pHt  up  7 
A  lengthy  sennon,  &c. 


I  should  like  to  go  to  sea. 

I  intend  to  go. 

The  one  God.    The  only  motive. 

I  am  not ;  you  are  not ;  he  is  not,  &c. 

Any  mi'ans. 

His  discourse  was  approved. 

To  sell  hy  auction. 

backward.s  arui  forwards. 

the  remainder,  or  the  rest  were 

bad. 

His  argument  was  founded  on  this  faet- 

Where  are  you  ?    Here  I  am. 

The  money  was  ordered  to  he  paid 

I  would  not  degrade  mysilf. 

He  was  paid  for  his  improvements. 

I  intend  to  leave  town  soon. 

A  piece  of  bread. 

A  good  house. 

He  conducts  himsoif  well,  respectably. 

He  is  a  pretty  good  scholar. 

His  farm  was  contiguous  to  mine,  close 

The  cattle  must  be  sent  to  pasture. 

Excellent  apples  ;  excellent  cider,  &c. 

He  is  a  pretty  good  scholar,  writer. 

was  extremely  distressing. 

was  very  degrading. 

A  total  want  of  capacity. 
The  United  Statrs,  or  any  of  them. 
Equally  well,  or  just  as  well,  &c. 
A B ,  Esq. 

will  end,  or  terminate,  iu  tliis. 

I  believe  they  are. 

1  think  he  must  have  died,  &c. 

in  a  bad  state,  or  condition. 

Will  you  put  these  things  in  order  for  mc  1 

f\rst,  secondly,  ^vc. 

How  is  your  family  ? 

What  do  people  think  of  it  ? 

Will  you  go  by  my  house  and  dine? 

Talents  of  the  highest  order. 

there  is  no  doubt  of  that 

another  iinci  of  story. 

We  may  Iiope  for  the  assistance  of  Cod. 

A  oolt:  A  filly. 

It  would  ill  acconl. 

When  did  you  come  into  town.    5  ^• 

Obs.  2. 
In  good  condition,  good  order. 
At  whose  house  do  you  stay  ? 
A  long  sermon,  &.c. 


*  The  word  clever,  applied  to  persons,  in  the  English  sense,  means  active,  quick, 
mgemous  ;  in  the  American  sense,  of  a  kind,  obliging  disposition. 

t  This  word,  in  the  northern  states,  is  a  general  tcnn  for  horses,  catLe,  sheep 
Bwine,  Ice. 

I  Expect  is  properly  applied  to  things  to  come ;  gTiess,  to  things  unccrtaia 
never  to  tilings  present,  or  about  which  there  ia  no  doubt 


14* 


150 


ENGLISH    GnAMMAR. 


§87. 


Why  don't  you  strike  like  I  do  T 

He  is  a  very  likely  man. 

Will  you  loan  nie  a  few  dollars  1 

I  was  mad  at  him. 

Mighty  cold  ;  mighty  fine. 

The  public  are  hereby  notified.* 

Obnoxious  f  doctrines. 

He  will  once  in  a  while  Ret  drunk. 

He  went  up  on  to  the  roof. 

What  had  thai  ought  to  be  f 

Over  the  signature  of  Junius.^ 

He  still  plead  not  guilty. 

They  are  not  very  plenty. 

He  is  rather  poorly. 

Predicated  on  former  proceedings. 

The  work  progresses  slowly. 

Kot  proven. 

I  was  raised  in  Virginia. 

A  committee  was  raised. 

The  price  will  raise  soon. 

1  reckon  he  will. 

The  council  resulted,  that,  &c. 

Such  doctrines  revolt  us. 

A  rugged  child. 

I  sat  out  on  my  journey. 

The  market  is  full  of  sauce. 

You  have  too  much  sauce. 

I  see  him,  I  seen  him  yesterday. 

■"Serious  people. 

He  is  some  better  than  he  was. 

I  have  had  a  spell  of  sickness. 

Be  spry.    He  is  a  springy  man. 

He  shews  much  teinper^\ 

He  is  an  ugly  fellow. 

For  tlie  construction  of  wharves. 


a.<i  I  do,  or,  like  as  I  do 

He  is  a  very  good  looking  man. 

—  lend  me  a  few  dollars. 

I  wasatipry  with  him. 
V(.'ry  cold  ;  very  fine. 
Notice  is  hereby  given. 
Hurtful  or  olfin^ive  doctrines. 

sometimes  get  drunk. 

He  went  up  to  the  roof. 

What  should  that  be  t 

Under  the  signature  of  Junius. 

pleaded  not  guilty. 

They  arc  not  very  plentiful. 

rather  indisposed. 

Founded  on  f  irmer  proceedings. 
The  work  advances  slowly. 
Not  proved. 

I  was  brought  up  in  V. 

was  formed  or  appointed. 

will  rise  soon. 

I  suppose  h'i*will. 

came  to  the  conclusion,  that,  &.0 

We  revolt  at  such  doctrines. 

A  robust  or  healthy  child. 
I  set  out,  &c. 

full  of  vcsetables. 

too  much  impertinence. 

T  saw  him  jesterday. 
Religious  people. 

somewhat  lietter. 

I  have  been  sick  for  some  time 
Be  quick.     An  active  man. 

much  warmth  of  temper. 

a  fellow  of  bad  disposition. 

of  wharfs. 


*  J^otify  signifies  to  make  known,  "  to  notify  the  public,"  therefore,  is  "  to 
make  the  public  known."  We  notify  a  thing  to  a  person,  and  not  a  person  of  a 
tiling. 

t  Obnoxious  signifies  liable  to,  and  should  not  be  used  for  hurtful  or  offensive. 

+  On  this  expression,  Pickering  remarks:  "A  few  of  our  writers  still  counte- 
nance this  unwarrantable  innovation ;  but  the  principle  on  which  it  is  defended 
would  unsettle  the  whole  language."  We  might  with  equal  propriety  say, 
"  Given  over  my  hand  and  seal."  "  It  is  so  well  known  to  be  the  constant  prac- 
tice of  the  best  English  and  American  writers  to  say,  '  under  a  name,  and  under 
a  signature,'  that  it  will  hardly  be  credited  that  any  wlio  speak  the  English  lan- 
guaige  could  have  questioned  the  propriety  of  it."  The  term  under,  in  such 
phrases,  is  figurative,  and  means,  under  the  sanction,  authority,  or  responsibility 
of.  It  has  nothing  to  do  witli  the  mere  relative  position  of  the  writing,  and  the 
name  or  signature  attached  to  it ; — a  circumstance  in  itself  of  no  conse<ju»"'Hie 
whatever,  but  which,  nevertheless,  is  all  that  the  term  ocer  is  capable  of  expressing. 

II  Temper,  in  the  American  sense,  n.eans  warmth  of  temper,  passion  In 
England  it  means  "  moderation,  coolness."  In  this  sense  the  words  temperate 
and  Intemperate  are  always  understood. 


§  88.  SYNTAX.  151 

§  88.     PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written 
composition  into  sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences, 
by  points  or  stops,  in  order  to  convey  to  the  reader 
the  exact  sense,  and  assist  him  in  the  proper  de- 
Uvery. 

Tlie  principal  stops  are  the  following  : — 

The  Comma  ( , )  the  semicolon  ( ;  )  the  colon  ( : ) 
the  period,  or  full  stop  ( . )  the  note  of  interroga 
tion  (  ?  )  the  note  of  exclamation  (  ! )  the  parentlie- 
sis  ( )  and  the  dash  (  — ) 

The  comma  represents  the  shortest  pause ;  the 
semicolon  a  pause  double  that  of  the  comm^ ;  the 
colon,  double  that  of  the  semicolon ;  and  the  period, 
double  that  of  the  colon. 

The  duration  of  the  pauses  must  be  left  to  the  taste  of  the  reader 
or  speaker. 

By  the  term  adjunct  is  meant,  any  number  of  words  added  by  way 
of  modifying  or  quaUfying  the  principal  words  ;  thus,  "  Cicero,  the 
eloquent  Cicero,  suffered  an  ignominious  death;"  the  phrase,  the 
eloquent  Cicero,  is  the  adjunct  of  Cicero. 

RULES    FOR    THE    PROPER    PUNCTUATION    OF    A    COMPOSITION. 

OF  THE  COMMA. 
The  comma  usually  separates  those  parts  of  a  sentence 
which,  though  very  closely  connected  in  sense  and  con- 
struction, require  a  pause  between  them. 

Rule  1. — A  simple  sentence,  when  it  is  a  short  one,  aamita 
only  a  period  at  the  end ;  as,  "  No  state  of  life  is  exempt  from 
trouble." 

When  a  simple  sentence  is  a  long  one,  and  tlie  nominative  case 
is  accompanied  by  inseparable  adjuncts,  a  comma  must  be  inserted 
before  the  verb;  as,  "A  steady  and  undivided  attention  to  ono 
object,  is  a  sure  mark  of  superior  genius."  "  The  necessity  of  an 
curly  acquaintance  with  history,  has  always  been  acknowledged." 


152  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §88. 

Rule  2. — The  simple  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  sepa- 
rated by  commas;  as,  "When  the  graces  of  novelty  are  worn  off, 
admiration  is  succeeded  by  indifference."  "Crafty  men  contemn 
studios,  simple  men  admire  them,  and  wise  men  use  them." 

But  when  the  members  are  closely  connected,  the  comma  ia 
unnecessary;  as,  "Revelation  tells  us  how  we  may  attain  happi- 
ness." 

Rule  3. — Tico  words  of  the  same  part  of  speech,  whether 
nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  participles,  or  adverbs,  do  not  admit  a 
comma  between  them  when  connected  by  a  conjunction  ;  as,  "  The 
earl/i  and  the  moon  are  planets."  "Time  brings  a  gentle  and 
poioerful  opiate  to  all  misfortunes."  "The  man  of  order  catches 
and  arrests  the  hours  as  they  fly."  "By  enctniraging  and  ani- 
mating him,  he  became  clever."  "  Success  generally  depends  on 
acting  prudently  and  vigorously."  "  We  must  either  live  virtuously  or 
viciously." 

But  when  the  conjunction  is  not  expressed,  a  comma  is  inserted  be- 
tween the  words  ;  as,  "  Reason,  passion  answer  one  great  end."  "He 
is  a.  plain,  honest  man." 

Role  4. — Three  or  more  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  participles,  or 
adverbs,  with  or  without  a  conjunction,  are  separated  by  commas  ;  as, 
"  Poetry,  music,  and  painting,  are  fine  arts."  "  David  was  a  brave, 
wise,  and  prudent  prince."  "  The  sight,  the  hearing,  the  feeling,  the 
taste,  and  the  smell,  are  the  five  natural  senses." 

When  words  follow  each  other  in  pairs,  there  is  a  comma  be- 
tween each  pair;  as,  "Anarchy  anrf  confusion,  poverty  and  distress, 
desolation  and  ruin,  are  the  consequences  of  civil  war." 

Rule  5. — The  words  used  in  a  direct  address,  the  case  absolute, 
a  short  expression  in  the  manner  of  a  quotation,  and  the  infinitive 
mood  absolute  when  it  is  not  used  as  a  nominative  case,  should  bf 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas ;  as,  "J\Iysmi, 
hear  the  counsels  of  thy  father."  "  I  remain.  Sir,  your  obedient 
servant."  "  The  time  of  youth  being  precious,  we  should  devote  it  to 
the  purposes  of  improvement."  "  Plutarch  calls  lying,  the  vice  oj 
slaves."  "  To  enjoy  present  pleasure,  he  sacrificed  future  ease  and 
reputation." 

Rule  6. — A  single  name  in  apposition  is  not  separated  by  a  comma ; 
as,  "  The  apostle  Peter ;  "  "  The  emperor  Antoninus."  Br.t  when 
such  name  is  accompanied  with  an  adjunct,  the  adjunct  should  have  a 
comma  before  and  after  it ;  as,  "  Augustus,  the  Roman  emperor,  was  a 


§88. 


SYNTAX.  153 


patron  of  the  fine  arts."     "  Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was  emi- 
nent for  his  zeal  and  knowledge." 

Rule  7. — Simple  members  of  sentences  connected  by  comparatives, 
and  phrases  placed  in  opposition  to,  or  in  contrast  with,  each  otlier, 
are  separated  by  commas;  thus,  " ^is  the  hart  pantclh  after  the 
water  brooks,  so  doth  my  soul  after  thee."  "  They  are  sometime? 
in  union  with,  and  sometimes  in  opposition  to,  the  views  of  each 
other." 

"  Though  deep,  yet  clear,  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull. 
Strong,  without  rage ;  without  o'erflowing,  full." 

Sometimes  when  one  word  follows  the  last  preposition,  a  comma 
must  not  be  inserted  before  it ;  as,  "He  was  much  attaciied  to,  and 
concerned  for  John." 

When  the  members  of  comparative  sentences  are  short,  the  comma 
is  omitted  ;  as,  "How  much  better  is  wisdom  than  gold." 

Rule  8. — All  adjuncts  or  explanatory  phrases,  either  at  the  beginning 
middle,  or  end  of  a  simple  sentence,  are  separated  from  it  by  commas; 
as,  "  With  gratitude,  I  remember  his  goodness  tome."  "I  remember, 
with  gratitude,  his  goodness  to  me."  "  His  talents,  formed  fm-  great 
enterprizes,  could  not  fail  of  rendering  liim  conspicuous."  "  VicesJ, 
like  shadows,  towards  the  evening  of  life,  grow  great  and  monstrous." 
"  I  saw  the  captain,  as  he  is  called." 

A  comma  must  also  be  inserted  between  the  two  parts  of  a  sentence, 
which  have  their  natural  order  inverted  ;  as,  "To  God,  nothing  is  im- 
possible ; "  that  is,  "  Nothing  is  impossible  to  God." 

RtJLE  9. — A  comma  must  be  inserted  before  the  relative,  when  tho 
clause  immediately  after  it  is  used  as  explanatory  of  the  antecedent 
clause;  as,  "  He,  who  disregards  the  good  opinion  of  the  world,  must 
be  iitterly  abandoned ;  "  or,  "He  must  be  utterly  abandoned,  who  dis- 
regards the  good  opinion  of  the  world." 

But  when  the  relative  is  so  closely  connected  with  its  antecedent, 
that  it  cannot  be  transposed,  a  comma  must  not  be  inserted  before  it ; 
as,  "Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  must  make."  "I  havo 
carefully  perused  the  hook  which  you  lent  me." 

Rule  10. — When  any  tense  of  the  verb  to  be  is  followed  by  a  verb 
in  the  infinitive  mood,  which,  by  transposition,  might  be  made  tho 
nominative  case  to  it,  the  former  is  generally  separated  from  tlio  latter 
verb  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  The  best  preservative  of  health  i.a,  to  ho  tt  m- 
perate  in  all  our  gratifications."  "To  be  temperate  in  all  our  gratifu 
cations,  is  the  best  preservative  of  health." 


154  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  88. 

Rule  11. — When  a  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  must  be  inserted  ; 
as,  "  Reading  makes  a  full  man  ;  conference,  a  ready  man  ;  and  writ- 
ing, an  exact  man." 

Rule  12. — The  word  that  used  as  a  conjunction  is  preceded  by  a 
comma;  as,  "Be  virtuous,  that  you  may  be  happy." 

Adverbs,  prepositions,  or  conjunctions,  used  to  connect  or  introduce 
a  new  member,  must  be  separated  from  the  preceding  part  of  the  sen- 
tence by  a  comma;  as,  "The  instructions  of  adversity  may  be  whole- 
some, though  unpleasing."  "The  wise  man  seeketh  wisdom,  hut  the 
fool  despiseth  understanding." 

Rule  13. — The  words  nay,  so,  hence,  again,  first,  secondly,  formerly, 
now,  lastly,  in  fact,  therefore,  wherefore,  however,  besides,  indeed,  and 
all  other  words  and  phrases  of  the  same  kind,  must,  when  considered 
of  importance,  be  separated  from  the  context  by  a  comma,  according 
to  rule  8th  ;  as,  "  Besides,  our  reputation  does  not  depend  on  the  ca- 
price of  man,  but  on  our  own  good  actions."  "  Lrtsf/y,  strive  to  pre- 
serve a  conscience  void  of  offence  towards  God  and  man."  "  If  the 
spring  put  forth  no  blossoms,  in  summer  there  will  be  no  beauty,  and 
in  autumn,  no  fruit ;  so,  if  youth  be  trifled  away  without  improvement, 
riper  years  may  be  contemptible,  and  old  age  miserable." 

When,  however,  these  phrases  are  not  considered  important, 
and  particularly  in  short  sentences,  the  comma  is  not  inserted ;  as, 
"There  is  surely  a  pleasure  in  acting  kindly."  "Idleness  cer- 
tainly is  the  mother  of  all  vices."  "  He  was  at  last  convinced  of  his 
error." 

*^*  The  foregoing  rules  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  found  comprehensive ;  yet  there 
may  be  some  cases  in  which  the  student  must  rely  on  his  own  judgment. 

In  composing  works  for  the  press,  many  authors  merely  insert  a  period  at  the 
end  of  each  sentence,  and  leave  the  rest  to  be  pointed  by  the  printers,  who,  from 
their  constant  practice,  are  supposed  to  have  acquired  a  uniform  mode  of  punc 
tuation. 

OF  THE  SEMICOLON. 

The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, which  are  less  closely  connected  than  those  which 
are  separated  by  a  comma. 

Rulk  1. — When  the  first  division  of  a  sentence  contains  a  com- 
plete proposition,  but  is  followed  by  a  clause  which  is  added  as  an 
mference,  or  to  give  some  explanation,  the  two  part>!  must  be 
separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  as,  "  Perform  your  duty  faithfully ;  for 
this  will  procure  you  the  blessing  of  heaven."    "  The  orator  makes 


§  88.  SYNTAX.  156 

the  truth  plain  to  his  hearers ;  he  awakens  them  ;  he  excites  them 
to  action ;  he  shews  them  their  impending  danger."  "  Be  in  peace 
with  many  ;  nevertheless,  have  but  one  counsellor  of  a  tliousand." 

Rule  2. — When  several  short  sentences  follow  each  other,  having 
merely  a  slight  connexion  in  idea,  though  in  other  respects  complete 
m  themselves,  they  may  be  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  as,  "  Every 
thing  grows  old  ;  every  thing  passes  away ;  every  thing  disappears." 
"  The  epic  poem  recites  the  exploits  of  a  hero  ;  tragedy  represents  a 
disastrous  event ;  comedy  ridicules  the  vices  and  follies  of  mankind  ; 
pastoral  poetry  describes  rural  life  ;  and  elegy  displays  the  tender  emo- 
tions of  the  heart." 

OF  THE  COLON. 

The  colon  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  into  two  or 
more  parts,  less  connected  than  those  which  are  separa- 
ted by  a  semicolon,  but  not  so  independent  as  to  require  a 
period. 

Rule  1. — A  colon  is  used  when  a  member  of  a  sentence  is  com- 
plete in  itself,  both  in  sense  and  construction,  but  is  followed  by  some 
additional  remark  or  illustration,  depending  upon  it  in  sense,  though 
not  in  syntax  ;  as,  "  A  brute  arrives  at  a  point  of  perfection  that  he 
can  never  pass  :  in  a  few  years  he  has  all  the  endowments  he  is  capa- 
ble of,  and  were  he  to  live  ten  thousand  more,  would  bo  the  same 
thing  he  is  at  present."  "Study  to  acquire  a  habit  of  thinking  :  no 
study  is  more  important." 

Rule  2. — When  a  sentence  contains  several  perfect  members 
separated  by  semicolons,  the  concluding  member  requires  a  colon 
before  it ;  as,  "  A  divine  legislator,  uttering  liis  voice  from  heaven  ; 
an  Almighty  Governor  stretching  forth  his  arm  to  punish  or  reward  ; 
informing  us  of  perpetual  rest  prepared  hereafter  for  the  righteous, 
and  of  indignation  and  wratJi  awaiting  the  wicked  :  these  are  the 
considerations  which  overawe  the  world,  which  support  integrity  and 
check  guilt." 

Rule  3. — Either  the  colon  or  semicolon  may  be  used  when  an 
example,  a  quotation,  or  a  speech  is  introduced  ;  as,  "  Always  re- 
member this  ancient  maxim  ;  "  Know  thyself."  "  The  scriptures  give 
us  an  amiable  representation  of  tlie  Deity,  in  these  words  :  '  God  is 
love.^  " 

Rule  4. — The  insertion  or  omission  of  a  conjimction  befor«  the  con- 
cluding member  of  a  sentence,  frequently  determines  the  use  of  the 


156  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  88. 

colon  or  semicolon.  When  the  conjunction  is  not  expressed  before 
the  concluding  member,  tlic  colon  is  to  be  used  ;  but  when  it  is  ex- 
pressed, the  semicolon  is  used  ;  a«,  "  Apply  yourself  to  learning  :  it 
will  redound  to  your  honour."  "Apply  yourself  to  learning;  Jar  it 
will  redound  to  your  honour." 

OF  THE  PERIOD. 

When  a  sentence  is  complete,  with  respect  to  the  con 
struction  and  the  sense  intended,  a  period  must  be  used  ; 
as,  "  God  made  all  things."  "  By  disappointments  and 
trials,  the  violence  of  our  passions  is  tamed."  *'  In  the  va- 
rieties of  life,  we  are  inured  to  habits  both  of  the  active  and 
the  passive  virtues." 

A  period  is  sometimes  inserted  between  sentences  which  are  con 
nected  by  conjunctions ;  as,  "  Our  position  is,  that  happiness  does 
not  consist  in  greatness.  And  this  position  we  make  out  by  shewing, 
that  even  what  are  supposed  to  be  the  peculiar  advantages  of  greatness, 
the  pleasures  of  ambition  and  superiority,  are  in  reality  common  to  all 
conditions.  Bui  whether  the  pursuits  of  ambition  are  ever  wise, 
whether  they  contribute  more  to  the  happiness  or  misery  of  the  pur- 
suers, is  a  different  question  ;  and  a  question  concerning  which  wa 
may  be  allowed  to  entertain  great  doubt." 

The   period  must  be  used  after  all  abbreviations ;  as, 
"A.  D."    "M.  A."    "Fol." 

OTHER  CHARACTERS  USED  EN  COIPOSITION. 

Interrogation  (1)  is  used  when  a  question  is  asked. 

Admiration  (!)  or  Exclamation,  is  used  to  express  any  sudden  emotion  of  the 

mind. 
Parenthesis  ( )  is  used  to  enclose  some  necessary  remark  in  the  body  of  anotlier 

sentence  ;  commas  are  now  commonly  used  instead  of  Parenthesis. 
Apostrophe  C)  's  used  in  place  of  a  letter  left  out ;  as  lov'd  for  loved. 
Caret  (a)  is  used  to  show  Uiat  some  word  is  either  omitted  or  interlined. 
Hyphen  (-)  is  used  at  the  end  of  a  line,  to  show  that  the  rest  of  the  word  is  at 

the  beginning  of  the  next  line.    It  also  connects  compound  words;  as. 

Tea-pot ;  Father^in-latc. 
Section  ($)  is  used  to  divide  a  discourse  or  chapter  into  portions. 
Paragraph  (IT)  is  used  to  denote  the  beginning  of  a  new  siibject 
Crotchets  ([  ])  cr  Brackets,  are  used  to  enclose  a  word  or  sentence  which  is  to 

be  explained  in  a  note,  or  the  explanation  itself,  or  to  correct  a  mistake, 

or  supply  some  deficiency. 
Qvatation  ("  ")  is  used  to  show  that  a  passage  is  quoted  In  the  autlior's  words 


§88. 


SYNTAX. 


157 


Index  (^)Cr)  is  used  to  point  out  any  thing  remarkable. 

Brace  \  '^  "®^*^  '"  connect  words  which  have  one  common  term,  or  Uirec  lines  la 
(         poetry,  liaviug  the  same  rhyme,  called  a  triplet. 

Ellipsis  ( )  is  used  when  some  I.-tters  are  oniiucd;  a.«i,  K— g  for  King 

Jicute  accent  (')  is  used  to  denote  a  short  syllable ;  the  grane  C)  a  lonp 
Breve  (  ^  )  marks  a  short  vowel  or  syllable,  and  the  Dash  ( — )  a  /on^. 
Diaeresis  (•■)  is  used  to  divide  a  diphthong  into  two  syllables;  as,  aiirial. 
Asterisk  {*)— Obelisk  (,])— Double  Dagger  (t)— and    Parallels  (1|)  with  smaU 

letters  and  figures,  refer  to  some  note  on  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom  of 

the  page. 
t*  *  *)  Two  or  three  asterisks  denote  the  omission  of  some  letters  in  some  bold 

or  indelicate  expression,  or  some  defect  in  the  niaimscript. 
Oash  ( )  is  used  to  denote  aliniptness— a  significant  pause — an  uneipccu-d 

turn  in  the  sentiment— or  that  the  fu-st  clause  is  common  to  all  tlie  rest,  aa 

in  this  definition  of  a  dash. 


ABREVIATiONS. 


I^atin. 
Ante  Christum* 
Artium  Baccaiaureus 
Anno  Domini 
Artium  Ma^'istor 
Anno  Mundi 
Ante  Meridiem 
Anno  Urbis  Conditae 
liaccalaurens  Divinitatis 
Custos  Privati  Sigilli 
Custos  Sigilli 
Doctor  Divinitatis 
JCxempli  gratia 
Regiae  Societatis  Socius 
RcgiiE  Societatis  Antiquario- 

rum  Socius 
Georgius  Rex 
rd  est 

Jesus  Hominium  Salvator 
Legum  Doctor 
IjOcus  Sigilli 
Messieurs  {French) 
Meditinae  Doctor 
Memoria;  Sacrum 
Nota  Bene 
I'ost  Meridiem 
I'o-t  Scriptuni 
Ultimo 
Et  Coitera 

A.  Answer.    Alexander 


A.  C. 
A.  B. 
A.  D. 
A.  M. 
A.  M. 
A.  M. 

A.  U.  C. 

B.  1). 

C.  P.  S. 

c.  s. 

D.  D. 

e.g. 
R.  S.  S. 
R.  S.  A. ! 

G.  R. 
i.  e. 

J.  H.  S. 
I..  L.  D. 
L.  S. 
Messrs. 
M.  D. 
M.  S. 
N.  B. 
P.  M. 
P.  S. 
(Jit. 
&c. 


English. 
Before  Christ 

Bachelor  of  .Arts  (often  B.  A.) 
In  the  year  of  our  Lord 
Master  of  Arts 
In  the  ye.ir  of  the  world 
In  the  forencxm 

In  the  year  after  the  building  of  the  city 
Bachelor  of  Divinity  [ — Rome 

Kecpri  of  the  Privy  Seal 
Ki^ejiei  (if  the  Seal 
Doclor  of  Divinity 
For  ex  niple 

Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
3.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries 
George  the  King 
That  is 

Jesus  the  Saviour  of  men 
Doctor  of  Laws 
Place  of  the  Seal 
Gentlemen 
Doctor  of  Medicine 
Sacred  to  the  Memory  (or  S.  M.) 
Note  well :  Take  notice 
I.i  the  afternoon 

I'oslscrip!,  something  written  after 
Last,  (month) 
And  the  rest ;  and  so  forth 


A( 

Bart. 

Bp. 

Capt. 

Col. 

Cr. 

Dr. 


Account 

Baronet 

Bishop 

Captain 

Colonel 

Creditor 

Debtor,  Doctor 


Do.  or  Ditto.    The  same 


r,.  C.  J.  Lord  Chief  Justice 

Knt.  Knight 

K.  G.  Knight  of  the  Garter 

K.  B.  Knight  of  the  Bath 

K  C   B.  Knt.  Conunander  of  the  Bath 

K.  <;.  Knt.  of  the  Crescent 

K.  P.  Knightof  St.  Patrick 

K.  T.  Knight  of  the  Thistle 

MS.  Manuscript 


*  The  Latin  of  these  Abbreviations  is  inserted,  not  to  be  got  by  licnrt,  but  U> 
show  the  etymology  of  the  English;  or  explain,  for  instance,  how  P.  M.  comaa 
to  mean  afternoon,  &c. 

15 


159  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §  89, 


Viz* 

Namely 

MSS. 

Manuscripts 

o. 

Question,  Uueen 

N.  S. 

New  Style 

R.N. 

Royal  Navy 

o.  s. 

Old  Style 

Esq. 

Esquire 

J.  p. 

Justice  of  the  Peace 

PARAGRAPHS. 

DifTerent  subjects,  unless  they  are  very  short,  or  very  numerous, 
should  be  separated  into  paragraphs. 

When  one  subject  is  continued  to  a  considerable  length,  the  larger 
divisions  of  it  should  be  put  into  distinct  paragraphs. 

The  facts,  premises,  and  conclusions,  of  a  subject,  sometimes 
naturally  point  out  the  separations  into  paragraphs  :  and  each  of  these, 
when  of  great  length,  will  again  require  subdivisions  at  the  most  dis- 
tinctive parts. 

In  cases  which  require  a  connected  subject  to  be  formed  into  several 
paragraphs,  a  suitable  turn  of  expression,  exhibiting  the  connexion  of 
the  broken  parts,  will  give  beauty  and  force  to  the  division. 

§  89.     OF  CAPITALS. 
Formerly  every  noun  began  with  a  capital  letter,  both 
in  writing  and  in  printing  ;  but  at  present  only  the  follow- 
ing words  begin  with  capital  letters  : — 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or 
any  other  piece  of  writing. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period  ;  also  after  a  note  of  in- 
terrogation,  or  exclamation,  when  the  sentence  before,  and 
the  one  after  it,  are  independent  of  each  other. 

But  if  several  interrogative  or  exclamatory  sentences  are  so  connected,  that  the 
latter  sentences  depend  on  the  former,  all  of  them,  except  the  first,  may  begin  with 
a  small  letter;  as,  "  How  doth  the  city  sit  solitary,  that  was  full  of  people  !  how 
•re  her  habitations  become  as  desolate !  how  is  she  become  as  a  widow :  " 

3.  Proper  names,  that  is,  names  of  persons,  places, 
ships,  dec. 

4.  The  pronoun  /,  and  the  inteijection  O,  are  written  in 
capitEils. 

5.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry. 

6.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity ;  as,  God,  Most  High, 
the  Almighty,  the  Supreme  Being,  dec. 

*  Contracted  from  vidtlicit. 


§  ^*  SYNTAJr. 


159 


7.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places  ; 
as,  Grecian,  Roman,  English,  die. 

8.  The  first  word  of  a  quotation,  introduced  aAer  a 
colon  ;  as,  always  remember  this  ancient  maxim  :  "  Know 
thyself." 

When  a  quotation  is  not  introduced  in  the  direct  form,  but  follows  a  coimna, 
the  first  word  must  not  bogin  with  a  capital ;  as,  Solomon  obBcrvee,  that  '  prid« 
goes  before  destruction.' 

9.  Common  nouns  when  personified ;  as,  ♦'  Come,  gentle 
Spring.'''' 

10.  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  titles 
of  books ;  as,  "  Euclid's  Elements  of  Geometry  ;  "  "  Gold- 
smith's Deserted  Village." 

JVote.  Other  words,  besides  the  preceding,  may  begin  with  capitals,  when  they 
are  remarkably  emphatical,  or  the  principal  subject  of  the  composition. 

§  90.    RHETORICAL  DIVISIONS  OP  A  DISCOURSE. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  discourse  are  generally  six  in  number,  viz. 
the  Exordium,  the  Narration,  the  Proposition,  tlie  Confirmation,  the 
Refutation,  and  the  Peroration. 

The  Exordium,  or  beginning  of  a  discourse,  is  the  part  in  which  the 
writer  or  speaker  gives  some  intimation  of  his  subject,  and  sohcits  tlie 
favor  and  attention  of  his  audience  or  readers. 

The  J^arralion  is  a  brief  recital  of  all  the  facts  connected  widi  the 
case,  from  beginning  to  end. 

The  Proposition  is  the  part  in  which  i.s  given  the  true  state  of  iha 
question,  specifying  the  points  maintained,  and  those  in  wluch  the 
writer  or  speaker  differs  from  his  adversary. 

The  Confirmation  assembles  all  the  proofs  and  arguments  tliat  ran 
be  adduced  in  support  of  what  has  been  attempted  to  be  established. 
The  stronger  begin  and  end  this  part,  and  the  weaker  are  reserved  for 
the  middle. 

The  Refutation  is  the  part  in  which  the  writer  or  speaker  answcra 
the  arguments  and  objections  of  his  opponent 

In  the  Peroration  or  Conclusion,  he  sums  up  the  principal  argu- 
ments, and  endeavors  to  excite  the  passions  of  his  reader  or  hearer  in 
his  favor. 


160  ENOLlsn    GRAMMAR.  §  91 

§  91.    DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  C0MP0SITI(3N. 

All  Composition,  whether  spoken  or  written,  is  of  two  kinds,  eithe. 
Prose  or  Poetry. 

Prose  compositions  are  those  in  which  the  thoughts  and  senlimenta 
are  expressed  in  common  and  ordinary  language. 

Poetic  compositions  are  those  in  which  the  thoughts  and  sentiments 
are  expressed  by  such  a  selection  and  arrangement  of  words  as  pleases 
the  ear  and  captivates  the  fancy. 

Thousands  write  and  speak  in  prose  for  one  who  does  so  in  verse, 
yet  it  is  generally  allowed  that  poetic  compositions  in  all  countries  have 
preceded  those  of  prose. 

Compositions,  whether  in  prose  or  poetry,  are  divided  into  different 
classes,  and  arranged  under  various  heads. 

I.  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  PROSE  COMPOSITION. 

The  different  kinds  into  which  prose  compositions  may  be  divided, 
are.  Narrative,  Letters,  Memoirs,  History,  Biography,  Essays,  Philo- 
sophy, Sermons,  Novels,  and  Speeches  or  Orations. 

Narrative  is  a  plain  and  simple  statement  of  such  facts  and  oc- 
currences as  a  person  may  have  either  seen  or  heard,  and  includes  in 
it  Voyages  and  Travels  of  all  descriptions. 

Letters  are  those  easy  and  familiar  compositions  which  pass  from 
one  person  to  another,  and  may  be  appropriated  to  every  description 
of  subject,  though  generally  relating  to  the  common  and  ordinary  oc- 
currences of  life  and  business. 

Memoirs  consist  of  loose  and  familiar  records  of  individuals 
or  nations,  without  that  regularity  of  method  which  history  and  bio- 
graphy require. 

History  is  a  regular  account  of  the  past  transactions  of  some  par 
ticular  age  or  nation,  and  details  chiefly  plans  of  government,  move- 
ments of  armies,  and  events  of  great  and  general  interest. 

Biography  is  a  particular  species  of  history,  and  consists  of  aa  ac- 
count of  the  birth,  death,  and  most  important  occurrences  in  the  life  of 
some  eminent  individual. 

Essay  means  trial  or  attempt,  and  is  a  modest  term  assumed  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  writer,  as  the  title  of  almost  any  species  of  compo- 
sition, though  it  is  generally  employed  to  denote  such  writings  as  the 
Spectator,  Rambler,  &c 


§  91«  SYNTAX.  Ifll 

Philosophy  or  Philosophical  Compositions  are  those  in  which  the 

principles  of  art  and  science  are  inculcated,  and  the  various  pheaomena 
of  the  Natural  a.  id  Moral  world  investigated. 

Sermons  are  illustrations  of  some  doctrine  of  Scripture,  or  exhor- 
tations to  the  practice  of  some  moral  and  religious  duty,  enjoined  by 
Christianity. 

Novels  arc  those  compositions  which  give  an  account  of  characters 
and  events  that  have  in  reality  never  existed,  but  have  been  invented 
or  supposed  by  the  author  for  the  purpose  cither  of  affording  pleasure, 
or  inculcating  some  important  lesson. 

Speeches  and  Orations  are  those  addresses  which  arc  made 
either  at  the  Bar  or  in  Public  Assemblies,  for  the  purpose  of  persuad- 
ing the  hearers  of  the  truth  of  certain  opinions,  or  leading  to  Uie  adop 
tion  of  certain  modes  of  action. 


II.  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  POETRY 

The  different  kinds,  into  which  poetry  may  be  divided,  arc,  the 
Epigram,  the  Epitaph,  the  Sonnet,  Pastoral,  Didactic,  Satiric,  Descrip- 
tive, Elegiac,  Lyric,  Dramatic,  and  Epic  or  Heroic,  poetry. 

An  Epigram  is  a  short,  witty  poem,  the  point  or  humour  of  which  ia 
brought  out  in  the  concluding  lines. 

An  Epitaph  is  an  inscription  on  a  tombstone,  in  commemoration 
of  some  departed  person. 

The  Sonnet,  which  is  of  Italian  origin,  means  a  little  song,  and 
consists  generally  of  fourteen  lines,  constructed  in  a  peculiar  man 
ner. 

Pastoral  poetry  is  that  which  relates  to  rural  life;  tliough  it 
sometimes  assumes  the  form  of  a  simple  song  or  ballad. 

Didactic  poetry  is  that  by  which  some  art  or  duty  is  inculcated  ; 
and,  though  forming  a  distinct  class  of  itself,  yet  its  characteristics  are 
so  general  as  to  extend  to  almost  every  description  of  poetry. 

Satires  are  poems  intended  to  ridicule  vices  and  follies,  and  hold 
them  up  to  contempt.  They  have  been  divided  into  two  classes  ;  the 
jocose  or  ludicrous,  and  the  serious  or  declamatory. 

Descriptive  poetry  may  be  classed  under  two  divisions  ;  that, 
by  which  is  offered  to  our  view  a  delineation  of  naluro,  or  of  natura. 
15* 


162  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  ^  91. 

scenery,  and  that,  by  which  arc  described  the  manners,  sentiments, 
and  passions  of  men. 

Elect  was  first  employed  in  lamentation  for  the  decease  of  great 
persons,  or  of  those  who  were  particularly  dear  to  the  writer  ;  but  it 
was  afterwards  extended  in  its  application,  and  employed  to  express 
the  misery  of  disappointed  love,  and  even  at  times  made  the  vehicle  of 
moral  sentiment. 

Ltric  poetry  is  such  as  may  be  sung  or  set  to  music,  which  both 
the  term  ode,  and  the  epithet  lyric,  from  lyre,  a  musical  instrument, 
imply.  There  is  the  serious  and  sublime  ode ;  and  the  familiar  and 
comic,  which,  in  modem  language,  is  denominated  the  song. 

By  Dramatic  poetrt  is  generally  meant  a  poem  in  blank  verse, 
called  a  play,  and  fitted  for  representation  on  the  stage.  It  is  of  two 
kinds,  Tragic  and  Comic 

An  Epic  poem  is  a  historical  representation  or  description  of  some 
great  and  important  action,  involving  the  interests  of  the  whole,  or  of  a 
large  portion,  of  mankind. 


PART    IV. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody  consists  of  two  parts ;  Elocution  and 
Versification. 

§  92.     ELOCUTION. 

Elocution  is  correct  pronunciation,  or  the 
proper   management  of   the   voice   in   reading  or 

speaking, 

Tlie  utility  of  EHocution  wili  be  evident,  when  we  consider  that  the 
finest  composition  and  the  most  brilliant  ideas  may  be  materially  in- 
jured, and,  in  some  cases,  totally  destroyed,  by  a  bad  and  insipid 
delivery ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  noble  sentiments,  properly  and 
gracefully  delivered,  produce  an  astonishing  eflecton  the  mind  of  the 
ti  carer. 

In  order  to  read  and  speak  with  grace  and  effect, 
attention  must  be  paid  to  the  projxjr  pitch  of  the 
voice,  the  accent  and  quantity  of  the  syllables,  and 
lo  emphasis,  pauses,  and  tones. 

1.    THE  VOICE. 

\.  The  voice  must  he  neither  too  loud  nw  too  low.  An  overstrained 
voice  is  inconvenient  to  the  speaker,  and  disagreeable  to  the  hearer^ 
while  a  voice  that  is  too  low,  besides  being  inaudihle,  indacat-es  either 
indolence  or  want  of  attention.  Endeavour,  tlierefore,  so  to  preserve 
the  command  of  your  voice,  not  only  in  each  sentence,  but  throughout 
the  discourse,  that  you  may  elevate  or  lower  it  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  persons  that  you  address,  and  the  nature  of  the  place  in  which 
you  speak. 


164  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  §92. 

2.  The  voice  mxisl  not  he  thick  and  indistinct.  Nerer  mumble 
or  clip  your  words,  by  omitting  to  pronounce  some  of  the  short 
words,  and  some  syllables  in  the  long  words  ;  for  it  is  very  disagree- 
able to  hear  an  individual  hurrying  on  without  any  care  either  lo 
be  heard  distinctly,  or  to  give  his  words  their  full  and  proper  sound. 
Accustom  yourself,  both  in  conversation  and  in  reading,  to  give 
every  sound  which  you  utter  its  due  proportion,  so  that  every  word 
and  every  syllable  may  be  clearly  and  distinctly  hoard.  Observe 
with  what  deliberation  some  read  and  converse,  how  full  a  sound 
they  give  to  every  word ;  and  let  such  persons  be  models  for  your 
imitation. 

3.  The  -utterance  micst  be  neither  too  quick  nor  too  sloto.  When  we 
speak  too  quick,  the  hearer  finds  a  difficulty  in  keeping  pace  with  our 
movements  ;  whilst,  by  a  slow  and  heavy  delivery,  he  becomes  languid 
and  careless.  Endeavour,  therefore,  to  convey  to  the  hearer  the  sense, 
weight,  and  propriety  of  every  sentence  you  read,  in  a  free,  full,  and 
deliberate  pronunciation. 

4.  The  voice  must  not  be  irregntar  or  uneven,  nor  yet  dull  nor  uniform, 
but  modulated  according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject.  Do  not  begin  your 
periods  either  in  too  high  or  in  too  low  a  key  ;  for  this  may  lead  to  its 
being  unnaturally  and  improperly  varied.  Attend  to  the  nature  and 
quantity  of  your  points,  and  the  length  of  your  periods ;  and  keep 
your  mind  intent  on  the  sense,  subject,  and  spirit  d*  the  author. 


2.    ACCENT  AND  aUANTITY. 

Accent  is  the  laying  of  a  particular  stress  of  the 
voice  on  a  certain  syllable  in  a  word ;  as,  the  syllable 
vir  in  the  word  virtue. 

A  proper  accentuation  is  of  importance,  and  it  can  be  acquired  only 
by  attending  to  correct  speakers,  and  frequently  consulting  a  good 
Pronouncing  Dictionary.  Walker's  Dictionary  is  considered  the 
standard  for  pronunciation. 

The  (Quantity  of  a  syllable,  is  that  time  which 
is  required  to  pronounce  it. 

A  long  syllable  requires  double  the  time  of  a 
short   one  in    pronouncing  it ;    thus,  pine,   tube 


)  92.  PROSODY.  165 

should  be  pronounced  as  slowly  again  as  pin  and 
tub. 

3.  By  Emphasis  is  meant  that  stress  of  the  voice 
which  we  lay  on  some  particular  word  or  words, 
in  order  to  mark  their  superior  importance  in  the 
sentence,  and  thereby  the  better  to  convey  the  idea 
intended  by  the  writer  or  speaker. 

A  person  who  clearly  comprehends  what  he  says  in  private  con- 
versation, never  fails  to  place  the  emphasis  on  the  right  word  ;  when, 
therefore,  he  is  about  to  read  or  repeat  the  words  of  others  or  his  own, 
let  him  only  consider  where  he  would  lay  the  emphasis,  supposing 
those  words  proceeded  from  the  immediate  sentiment  of  his  own  mind 
in  private  discourse. 

There  is  one  error,  against  which  it  is  necessary  particularly  to 
caution  the  learner,  namely,  that  of  too  great  a  multiplication  of  em.- 
phatical  words.  It  is  only  by  a  judicious  use  of  them  that  we  can 
give  them  any  weight.  If  they  recur  too  often  ;  if  a  reader  or  speaker 
appears  desirous,  by  a  multitude  of  strong  emphases,  to  render  every 
thing  which  he  expresses  particularly  important,  we  soon  learn  to  pay 
little  regard  to  them.  To  crowd  every  sentence  with  emphatical 
words,  is  liko  crowding  all  the  pages  of  a  book  with  Italic  characters, 
which,  as  to  the  effect,  is  just  the  same  as  to  use  no  such  distinctions 
at  all. 

4.  Pauses,  or  rests,  are  cessations  of  the  voice, 
in  order  to  enable  the  reader  or  speaker  to  take 
breath  ;  and  to  give  the  hearer  a  distinct  perception 
of  the  meaning,  not  only  of  each  sentence,  but  of  the 
whole  discourse. 

Pauses  are  of  two  kinds ;  first,  emphatical  pauses ;  and  next,  such 
as  serve  to  distinguish  the  sense. 

Emphatical  pauses  are  used  after  something  has  been  said  which  is 
of  importance,  and  on  which  we  wish  to  fix  the  hearer's  attention. 
Sometimes  they  are  made  to  introduce  an  emphatical  sentence ;  but 
then  the  matter  must  be  really  important,  otherwise  the  expectation 
is  disappointed.  These  pauses,  like  emphases,  ought  not  to  be  used 
too  frequently. 


166  ENGLISH    GRAUMAB.  §  92. 

With  respect  to  pauses  which  serve  to  distinguish  the  sense,  it  in 
proper  to  observe,  that  the  voice  should  be  relieved  at  every  stop ; 
slightly  at  a  comma,  longer  at  a  semicolon,  still  more  so  at  a  colon, 
and  completely  at  a  period.  An  excellent  method  for  preventing  the 
habit  of  taking  breath  too  frequently,  is,  to  accustom  yourself  to  read 
sentences  of  considerable  length,  and  those  which  abound  with  long 
and  difficult  words. 

Pauses,  whether  in  reading  or  in  public  discourse,  must  always  be 
formed  upon  the  manner  in  which  we  utter  ourselves  in  ordinary,  sen- 
sible conversation,  and  not  upon  any  stiffj  artificial  manner  which  is 
sometimes  acquired. 

There  are  likewise  two  kinds  of  pauses  peculiar  to  poetry ;  one  is, 
the  final  pause  at  the  end  of  the  line,  and  the  other,  the  cajsural  pause 
at  or  near  the  middle  of  the  line. 

In  reading  blank  verse,  the  close  of  each  line  should  be  made  sensi- 
ble to  tlie  ear,  but  without  letting  the  voice  fall,  or  elevating  it ;  it 
should  be  marked  only  by  such  a  slight  suspension  of  sound,  as  may 
distinguish  the  passage  from  one  line  to  another  without  injuring  the 
sense. 

The  caisural  pause  divides  the  line  into  two  parts.  It  is  necessary 
in  every  line  of  eight,  ten,  or  twelve  syllables,  and  is  generally  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  syllable. 

5.  Tones  consist  in  the  modulation  of  the  voice, 
the  notes  or  variations  of  sound  which  we  employ- 
in  speaking. 

The  different  passions  of  the  mind  must  be  expressed  by  different 
tones  of  the  voice.  Love,  by  a  soft,  smooth,  languishing  voice  ; 
anger,  by  a  strong,  vehement,  and  elevated  voice;  joy,  by  a  quick, 
sweet,  and  clear  voice ;  sorrow,  by  a  low,  flexible,  interrupted  voice ; 
fear,  by  a  dejected,  tremulous,  hesitating  voice  ;  courage,  by  a  full, 
bold,  and  loud  voice ;  and  perplexity,  by  a  grave,  steady,  and  earnest 
voice.  In  exordiums  the  voice  should  be  low,  yet  clear ;  in  narrations, 
distinct ;  in  reasoning,  slow ;  in  persuasions,  strong :  it  should 
thunder  in  anger,  soften  in  sorrow,  tremble  in  fear,  and  melt  in 
love. 

In  the  antithesis,  the  contrary  assertion  must  be  pronounced  louder 
than  the  other.  In  a  climax,  the  voice  should  always  rise  with  it  In 
dialogues,  it  should  alter  with  the  parts. 

The  voice  should  be  steadily  and  firmly  supported  throughout  the 
sentence,  and  the  concluding  words  ought  to  be  modulated  according 


§  92.  PROSODY.  107 

to  the  general  nature  of  the  discourse,  and  the  particular  constraction 
and  meaning  of  the  sentence.  Such  sentences  are  so  constnrcted, 
that  the  last  words  require  a  stronger  emphasis  than  any  of  the  pre- 
ceding ;  while  others  admit  of  being  dosed  with  a  soft  and  gentle 
sound  Where  there  is  nothing  in  the  sense  which  requires  tlie  last 
sound  to  be  devated  or  eniphaticaJ,  an  easy  fall,  sufficient  to  show 
that  the  sense  is  finished,  will  be  proper.  And  in  pathetic  pieces  it  is 
necessary  that  there  should  be  a  still  greater  cadence  of  the  voice. 

The  tones  of  public  speaking  must  be  formed  upon  those  of  sensi- 
ble animated  conversation.  The  best  rule,  therefore,  is  to  foUow  J^o 
tnrej  consider  how  she  teaches  you  to  utter  any  sentiment  or  feeling 
of  theheart.  Imagine  a  subject  of  debate  introduced  into  conversation, 
and  yourself  bearing  a  share  in  it.  Think  after  what  manner,  with 
what  tones  and  inflections  of  voice,  you  would  on  suchan  occasion  ex- 
press yourself,  when  you  were  most  in  earnest,  and  sought  most  to 
be  listened  to  by  those  whom  you  addressed.  Let  these  be  the  foun- 
dation of  your  manner  of  pronoundng  in  public,  and  you  will  take 
the  surest  method  of  rendering  your  ddivery  both  agreeable  and  per 
suasive. 

The  next  subject  which  claims  attention  is  gesture  or  ac«on. 
The  best  rule  that  can  be  given  with  respect  to  this  subject  is,  to  at- 
tend to  the  looks  and  gestures  in  which  earnestness,  indignation, 
compassion,  or  any  other  emotion,  discovers  itsdf  to  most  advantage 
in  the  common  intercourse  of  men.  A  judicious  speaker  will  endea- 
vor to  make  his  motions  and  gestures  exhibit  that  kind  of  expression 
which  nature  has  dictated,  for  unless  this  he  the  case,  no  study  can 
prevent  their  appearing  stilTand  ungraceful.  The  study  of  action  con- 
sists cliiefly  in  guarding  against  awkward  and  disagreeable  motions, 
and  learning  to  perform,  in  the  most  graceful  manner,  such  as  are 
natural. 

The  first  object  in  the  study  of  Elocution  is  to  habituate  the  scholar 
to  speak  with  distinctness  and  deliberation  ;  for  till  this  has  been  ac- 
quired, no  improvement  can  be  made  in  elegance  of  expression.  "An 
excellent  method  of  teaching  a  distinct  enunciation  in  speaking  is," 
says  Dr.  Knox,  "the  motion  of  an  instructor's  hand,  resembling  the 
beating  of  time  in  music,  and  directing  the  pauses  of  the  learner,  and 
the  slower  or  quicker  progress  of  his  pronunciation.  It  is,  likewise, 
very  useful  to  insist,  during  this  exercise,  that  every  syllable,  but  espe- 
cially the  last,  shall  strike  the  ear  distinctly,  but  williout  dwelling  upon 
it ;  otherwise  the  slow  and  distinct  manner  will  degenerate  into  the 


168  KNGLISH    GRAMMAR.  ^  93. 

iea\y  and  the  sluggish.     During  Ihin  process,  all  monotony,  and  all 
lisagreeable  tones  arc  to  be  carefully  corrected." 

When  a  distinct  and  deliberate  utterance  has  been  obtained,  and  iUl 
Jisagreeable  tones  have  been  corrected,  the  student  must  endeavor  to 
acquire  an  impressive  and  graceful  utterance,  with  such  a  portion  of 
action  as  good  sense  and  observation  may  suggest, 

§  93.     VERSIFICATION. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain 
number  of  syllables,  according  to  particular  rules. 

A  Foot  is  a  part  of  a  verse,  and  consists  of  two  or  three 
syllables. 

A  certain  nun^ber  of  syllables  are  s.iid  to  be  named  Feet,  because  by  their  aid 
the  voice  steps  along,  as  it  were,  through  the  verse  in  a  measured  pace. 

A  Verse  is  a  certain  number  of  connected  feet  forming 
one  line. 

A  Hemistich  is  half  a  verse. 

A  Couplet  or  Distich  consists  of  two  verses  ;  a  Triplet 
of  three. 

The  term  hypercatalectic,  hypermeter,  or  redundant,  is  applied  to  a 
verse  when  it  exceeds  the  regular  number  of  syllables. 

A  Stanza  or  Stave  is  a  combination  of  several  verses, 
varying  in  number  according  to  the  poet's  fancy,  and  con- 
stituting a  regular  division  of  a  poem,  or  song. 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound  between  the  last  syllables 
»f  different  lines,  as  in  the  following  verses  :— 

On  what  foundation  stands  the  warrior's  pride, 
How  just  his  hopes,  let  Swedish  Charles  decide. 

In  Blank  Verse  the  final  syllables  do  not  rhyme. 

A  Ccesiira  is  a  cessation  of  the  voice,  and  occurs  im- 
mediately after  the  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  syllable  of  a 
verse ;  as. 

The  dumb  shall  sing  ||  the  lame  his  crutch  forego. 
And  leap  exulting  ||  like  the  bounding  roe. 


5  93  pRosomr.  169 

Metre  18  the  arrangement  of  a  certain  number  of  poe- 
tical feet  in  a  verse,  according  to  the  accent. 

To  scan  a  verse  is  to  divide  it  into  its  component  feet. 

Alliteration  consists  in  repeating  the  same  letter  or  letters,  at  certain 
intervals  j  as. 

Better  to  hmit  in  fields  for  health  unbougbt, 
Than  fee  the  doctor  for  a  nauseous  draught. 

The  Strophe  was  that  part  of  the  ancient  hymn  which  was  sung  by 
the  Greek  chorus,  in  turning  from  east  to  west,  while  dancing  round 
their  altars. 

The  Antistrophe  was  that  part  of  the  sacred  hymn  of  the  Greeks 
which  was  sung  in  returning  from  west  to  east,  after  they  had  danced 
round  the  altars. 

The  Epode  is  the  third  or  last  part  of  an  ode ;  the  ancient  ode  was 
divided  into  strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode.  The  epode  was  sung 
by  the  priest  standing  before  the  altar,  after  all  the  turns  and  returns 
of  the  strophe  and  antistrophe.  The  word  epode  signifies  the  end 
of  the  song. 

The  Prologue,  in  dramatic  poetry,  is  an  explanatory  exordium,  ad- 
dressed to  the  audience  before  the  drama  begins 

The  Epilogue,  in  the  drama,  is  an  address  to  the  audience  when  the 
play  is  completed,  and  is  generally  ^vritten  in  poetry. 

All  feet  used  in  poetry  are  reducible  to  eight  kinds ; 
four  of  two  syllables,  and  four  of  three,  as  follows  :— 

DISSTLLABLE.  TRISTLLABLE. 

A  Trochee  —  ^  A  Dactyl  —  -^  ^ 

An  Iambus  --  —  An  Amphibrach 

A  Spondee An  Anapaest  —  ■ 

A  Pyrrhic  -'  -'  A  Tribrach  -^  ^  ^ 

A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,*  and  the  last 
unaccented;  as,  "Noble,  happy." 

An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the 
last  accented  ;  as,  "  Adore,  defend." 

A  Spondee  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented  , 
as,  ♦'  Vain  man." 

*  In  versification,  every  accented  syllable  ia  long,  every  unaccented  qrDaMt 
is  short. 

16 


170  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  ^  93 

A.  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented  ; 
as,  "  E'^n  in  j  the  height." 

A  Dactyl  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two 
latter  unaccented  ;  as,  •'  Virtuous." 

An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  last  syllables  unac 
cented,  and  the  middle  one  accented  j  as,  "  Content- 
ment." 

An  AnafCRSl  has  the  first  two  syllables  unaccented, 
and  the  last  accented  ;  as,  "  Intercede." 

A  Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented  ;  as,  "  Nu- 
merable." 

The  Iambus,  Trochee,  and  Anapaest,  may  be  denominated  princi- 
pal feet,  as  pieces  of  poetry  are  chiefly,  and  may  be  wholly,  formed  of 
them.     The  others  may  be  termed  secondary  feet,  because  their  chief 
use  is  to  diversify  the  numbers,  and  to  improve  the  verse, 
1.    IAMBIC  VERSES. 

Iambic  verses  have  every  second,  fourth,  and  other  even  syllables 
accented,  and  are  of  various  lengths. 

1.  The  shortest  form  of  Iambic  verse,  consists  of  one  Iambus  with 
Bn  hypermeter  or  additional  syllable;  as. 

Consent  |  ing, 

Repent  |  ing. 
We  have  no  poem  of  this  measure,  but  it  is  sometimes  introduced 
into  stanzas. 

2.  The  second  form  of  our  Iambic  is  also  too  short  to  be  continued 
through  any  numoer  of  lines.     It  consists  of  two  Iambuses  ;  as. 

With  Thee  |  we  rise. 
With  Thee  |  we  reign 
And  em  |  pires  gain, 
Beyond  |  the  skies. 
This  form  sometimes  assumes  an  hypermeter  syllable  ;  aa 
Upon  j  a  moun  |  tain 
Beside  |  a  foun  |  tain. 

3.  The  third  form  consists  o(  three  Iambuses,  and  is  continued  only 
for  a  few  lines ;  as, 

In  pl4  I  ces  far  |  6r  ne4r, 
Or  fa  I  mSus  Or  I  Obscure, 


§  03.  PROSODY.  171 

Where  whole  |  s5me  is  |  the  air, 
Or  where  |  the  most  |  impure. 
This  form  sometimes  admits  an  additional  short  syllable ;  as 
Our  hearts  |  n5  long  |  er  Ian  |  guTsh. 

4.  The  fourth  form  may  extend  through  a  considerable  numhei  of 
verses ;  it  consists  offotir  Iambuses ;  as, 

H5w  sleep  |  the  brave  |  who  sink  |  t6  rest 
By  all  their  coiintry's  wishes  blest ! 
When  spring,  with  dewy  fingers  cold, 
Returns  to  deck  their  hallow'd  mould, 
But  there  shall  dress  a  sweeter  sod, 
Than  fancy's  feet  have  ever  trod. 

5.  The  fifth  species,  or  Heroic  measure,  consists  of  five  Iambuses  j 
as, 

Ye  glit  I  t'ring  towns,  |  with  wealth  |  and  splend  |  our 

crown'd  ; 
Ye  fields,  where  summer  spreads  profusion  round ; 
Ye  lakes,  whose  vessels  catch  the  busy  gale  ; 
Ye  bending  swains,  that  dress  the  flow'ry  vale  ; 
For  me  your  tributary  stores  combine  ; 
Creation's  heir,  the  world,  the  world  is  mine  ! 
This  measure  may  be  used  either  with,  or  without  rliymc,  and  fre- 
quently admits  an  additional  syllable  ;  as. 

Worth  makes  |  the  man,  |  the  want  |  6f  it  |  the  fel  |  low. 
The  rest  is  nought  but  leather  or  prunelZo. 

6.  The  sixth  form  of  our  Iambic  is  commonly  called  the  Alexandrine 
measure;  it  consists  of  six  Iambuses. 

FOrthou  I  artbut  |  6fdust;  |  behum  |  bleand  |  be  wise. 

The  Alexandrine  is  sometimes  introduced  into  heroic  rhyme,  and  par- 
ticularly into  stanzas  after  the  manner  of  Spencer;  and  when  used 
sparingly,  and  with  judgment,  occasions  an  agreeable  variety. 

To  sit  on  rocks,  to  muse  o'er  flood  and  fell, 
To  slowly  trace  the  forest's  shady  scene, 


172  ENGLISH    GRAMMAB.  ^  0<). 

Where  things  that  own  not  man's  dominion  dwell, 
And  mortal  foot  hath  ne'er,  or  rarely  been ; 
To  climb  the  trackless  mountain  all  unseen, 
With  the  wild  flock  that  never  needs  a  fold  ; 
Alone  o'er  steeps  and  foaming  falls  to  lean  ; 
This  is  not  solitude ;  'tis  but  to  hold 

Converse  \  with  •A'a  |  /wre's  charms,  \  and  view  '  her  stores  |  xm- 
roll'd. 
7.  The  seventh  and   last  form  of  Iambic  verse  consists  of  seven 
Iambuses. 
The  Lord  |  descend  |  ed  from  |  above,  |  and  bow'd  |  the  heav  |  ens 
high. 
This  was  anciently  written  in  one  line ;  but  it  is  now  broken  into  two , 
the  first  containing  four  feet,  and  the  second  three  ;  as, 
Thou  didst,  |  O  migh  |  ty  God !  \  exist  | 

Ere  time  |  began  |  its  race  ;  | 
Before  the  ample  elements 

Fill'd  up  the  void  of  space. 

2.  TROCHAIC  VERSE. 
1.  The  shortest  Trochaic  verse  consists  of  one  Trochee^  with  an  ad- 
ditional syllable ;  as, 

Tumult  I  cease, 
Sink  to  I  peace. 
3.  The  next  form  contains  two  Trochees  ;  as, 
Wishes  I  rising, 
Thoughts  sur  |  prising, 
Pleasures  |  courting. 
Charms  trans  |  porting. 
Sometimes  this  form  admits  an  additional  syllable  ;  aa, 
In  the  1  days  6f  |  old. 
Stories  j  plainly  |  told, 
3.  The  third  species  contains  three  Trochees  ;  as, 

When  our  |  hearts  are  |  mourning. 
This  form  frequently  has  an  additional  syllable ;  as. 

Vital  I  spark  6f  |  heav'nly  \Jlame, 
Quit,  oh  I  quit,  this  (  mortal  \  frame! 


^  93.  PROSODY.  178 

Trembling,  hoping,  ling'ring,  flying, 
Oh  !  the  pain,  the  bliss  of  dying  : 
Cease  fond  nature,  cease  thy  strife. 
And  let  me  languish  into  life. 

4.  The  fourth  form  consists  of  four  Trochees  ;  as, 

Round  us  I  roars  the  |  tempest  {  louder.  | 
This  form  seldom  assumes  an  additional  syllable. 

5.  The  fifth  species  is  not  very  common ;  it  is  composed  of  fitt 
Trochees  ;  as, 

All  that  [  walk  On  |  foot  6r  [  ride  In  (  chariots. 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6.  The  sixth  and  last  form  consists  of  six  Trochees ;  as, 

On  a  I  mountain,  j  strctch'd  be  |  neath  5  |  hoary  }  wil- 

low,  I 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow. 

3.    DACTYLIC  VERSE. 
Dactylic  verse  is  very  rarely  used. 

3.    ANAP^STIC  VERSE. 

1.  The  first  form  of  our  Anapaestic  verse  consists  of  two  Anapaests; 
as. 

But  his  cdu  I  rage  *gan  fail, 

For  no  arts  could  avail. 
Sometimes  this  form  assumes  an  additional  short  syllable  ;  as, 
Then  his  cou  [  rage,  gan  fail  |  him, 
For  no  arts  could  avail  him. 

2.  Tlie  second  species,  much  used  both  in  solemn  and  cheerful  sub- 
jects, consists  of  three  Anapaests. 

0  ye  woods,  |  spread  y5ur  branch  [  es  apace; 
To  your  deep  |  est  recess  [  es  I  fly ; 

1  would  hide  with  the  beasts  of  the  chase, 

I  would  vanish  from  every  eye. 
16* 


174  ENGLISH    GRAHMAH.  ^93. 

3.  The  third  consists  of /our  Anapaests ;  as, 
May  I  go  I  vern  my  pass  |  iOns  with  ab  |  sOlute  sway  , 
And  grow  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  away. 
This  form  sometimes  contains  an  additional  syllable  ;  as, 

On  the  warm  j  cheek  Qf  youth,  j  smiles  and  ro  |  ses 
are  blend  j  Ing. 

The  preceding  are  the  different  kinds  of  the  principal  feet,  in 
their  simple  forms.  They  are  capable  of  numerous  variations,  by 
the  intermixture  of  those  feet  with  one  another,  and  by  the  ad- 
mission of  the  secondary  feet,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  ex- 
amples. 

THE    PYRRHIC    MIXED    WITH    THE    IAMBIC. 

And  td  I  the  dead  }  my  will  j  Ing  soul  }  shall  go. 

THE    SPONDEE    WITH    THE    IAMBIC. 

F6rbear  j  great  man,  j  in  arms  J  renown'd,  |  fOrbear. 

THE    TROCHEE    WITH    THE    IAMBIC. 

Tyrant  |  and  slave,  j  thOse  names  |  of  hate  j  and  fear 

THE    FOLLOWING    CONSISTS    OF    AN    IAMBIC    AND    TWO   ANAPAESTS. 

My  sor  j  rOws  I  then  J  might  assuage 
In  the  ways  |  6f  reli  |  gion  and  truth, 

Might  learn  ]  from  the  wis  j  dom  of  age. 
And  be  cheer'd  |  by  the  sal  |  lies  of  youth. 

5,    OF  BLANK  VERSE. 

Our  blank  verse  may  be  reckoned  a  noble,  bold,  and  disencum- 
bered species  of  versification,  and  in  several  cases  it  possesses  many 
advantages  over  rhyme.  It  allows  the  lines  to  run  into  one  another 
with  perfect  freedom  ;  hence  it  is  adapted  to  subjects  of  dignity  and 
force,  which  demand  more  free  and  manly  numbers  than  can  be  ob- 
tained in  rhyme.  Blank  verse  is  written  in  the  heroic  measure,  con- 
sisting often  syllables.  The  principal  poets  in  this  species  of  compo- 
sition are  JMilton,  Thomson,  Armstrong,  Akenside,  Cowper,  and 
PoUok. 


§  94.  PROSODY.  175 

§  94.  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

A  Figure  of  Speech  is  a  mode  of  speaking,  in  which  a  word  or 
sentence  is  to  be  understood  in  a  sense  different  from  its  most  common 
and  literal  meaning. 

THE  PRINCIPAL    FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  ARE, 

Personification,  Synecdoche, 

Simile,  Antithesis, 

Metaphor,  Climax, 

Allegory,  Exclamation, 

Hyperbole,  Interrogation, 

Irony,  Paralepsis, 

Metonymy,  Apostrophe. 

Prosopopcela,  or  Personification,  is  that  figure  of  speech  by  which 
we  attribute  hfe  and  action  to  inanimate  objects ;  as,  The  sea  saw  it 
and  fled, 

A  simile  expresses  the  resemblance  that  one  object  bears  to  another ; 
as.  He  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  i-ivers  of  water. 

A  Metaphor  is  a  simile  without  the  sign  (like,  or  as,  &c)  of  compa- 
rison ;  as,  He  shall  be  a  tree  planted  by,  fyc. 

An  allegory  is  a  continuation  of  several  metaphors,  so  connected  in 
sense  as  to  form  a  kind  of  parable  or  fable ;  thus,  The  people  of  Is- 
rael are  represented  under  the  image  of  a  vine ;  Thou  hast  brought  a 
vine  out  of  Egypt,  ^-c.    Ps.  Ixxx.  8  to  17. 

An  hyperbole  is  a  figure  that  represents  things  as  greater  or  less, 
better  or  worse,  than  they  really  are ;  as.  When  David  says  of  Saul 
and  Jonathan,  They  were  swifter  than  eagles,  they  were  stronger  than 
lions. 

Irony  is  a  figure  by  which  we  mean  quite  the  contrary  of  what  we 
say :  as.  When  Elijah  said  to  the  worshippers  of  Baal,  Cry  aloud,  for 
he  is  a  god,  <^c. 

A  metonymy  is  a  figure  by  which  we  put  the  cause  for  the  effect, 
or  the  effect  for  the  cause;  as,  when  we  say.  He  reads  Milton; 
we  mean  Milton's  works.  Grey  hairs  should  be  respected,  u  e.  old 
age. 

Synecdoche  is  the  putting  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  the  whole  for  a 
part,  a  definite  number  for  an  indefinite,  &c  as.  The  waves  for  the 
sea,  the  head  for  the  person,  and  ten  thousand  for  any  great  number. 
This  figure  is  nearly  allied  to  metonymy. 


176  BNOLISH  GRAMMAR.  §  95. 

Antithesis,  or  contrast,  ia  a  figure  by  which  different  or  contrary  ob- 
jects are  contrasted,  to  make  them  show  one  another  to  advantage; 
thus,  Solomon  contrasts  the  timidity  of  the  wicked  with  the  courage  of 
the  righteous,  when  he  says,  The  loicked  flee  token  no  man  pursueth, 
but  the  righteous  are  bold  as  a  lion. 

*  Climax  is  the  heightening  of  all  the  circumstances  of- an  object  or 
action,  which  we  wish  to  place  in  a  strong  light ;  as,  who  shall  sepa- 
rate us  from  the  love  of  Christ  ?  Shall  tribulation,  or  distress,  or  per- 
secution, or  famine,  or  nakedness,  or  peril,  or  sxoord  ?  J^ay,  ^c.  See 
also,  Rom.  viii.  38,  39. 

Exclamation  is  a  figure  that  is  used  to  express  some  strong  emotion 
of  the  mind  ;  as.  Oh  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  icisdom  and  the 
knowledge  of  God ! 

Interrogation  is  a  figure  by  which  we  express  the  emotion  of  our 
mind,  and  enliven  our  discourse  by  proposing  questions;  thus.  Hath 
the  Lord  said  it  ?  and  shall  he  not  do  it  ?  Hath  he  spoken  it  ?  and  shall 
he  not  make  it  good  ? 

Paralepsis,  or  omission,  is  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  pretends  to 
conceal  what  he  is  really  declaring  and  strongly  enforcing ;  as,  Hora- 
tius  was  once  a  very  promising  young  gentleman,  but  in  process  of 
time  he  became  so  addicted  to  gaming,  not  to  mention  his  drunkenness 
and  debauchery,  that  he  soon  exhausted  his  estate  and  ruined  his  con- 
stitution. 

Jipostrophe,  is  a  turning  off  from  the  subject  to  address  some  other 
person  or  thing ;  as,  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory :  0  death,  where 
is  thy  sting  ? 

§95.     POETIC  LICENSE. 

I.  The  first  species  of  poetic  license  consists  in  an  arrangement  of 
words  different  from  what  is  allowable  in  prose. 

1 .  The  adjective  is  often  placed  after  its  noun,  where  in  common 
prose  it  would  precede  it ;  as, 

Come,  nymph  demure,  with  mantle  blue. 

Or  where  the  gorgeous  east,  with  richest  hand. 

Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric,  pearls  and  gold. 

2.  The  nominative  sometimes  follows,  and  the  objective  precedes, 
their  respective  verbs ;  as, 

*  Climax,  Amplification,  Enumeration  or  Gradatioa 


§  95.  PROSODY.  177 

No  hive  hast  thou  of  hoarded  sweets. 
A  transient  calm  the  happy  scenes  bestow. 
His  listless  length  at  noontide  would  he  stretch. 
Snatciied  in  short  eddies,  plays  the  withered  leaf. 

3.  The  infinitive  mood  often  precedes  the  word  on  which  it  depends ; 
as, 

When  first  tliy  sire  to  send  on  earth 
Virtue,  his  darling  child,  designed, 
To  thee  he  gave  the  heavenly  birth, 
And  bade  thee  form  her  infant  mind. 

4.  The  verb  comes  frequently  between  its  nominatives  ;  as 

Then  too,  they  say,  through  all  the  burdened  air. 
Long  groans  are  heard,  shrill  sounds,  and  distant  sighs. 

His  praise,  ye  brooks,  attune,  ye  trembling  rills. 

5.  Prepositions  are  sometimes  placed  after  the  words  which  they 
govern;  as, 

Where  echo  waUts  steep  hills  among. 

II.  In  poetry,  words,  idioms,  and  phrases,  are  often  used  which 
would  be  inadmissible  in  prose  ;  as, 

A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear. 
And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year. 

By  fountain  clear,  or  spangled  star-light  sheen. 

Shall  I  receive  by  gift,  what  of  my  own, 

When  and  where  likes  me  best,  I  can  command  ? 

Thy  voice  we  hear,  and  thy  behests  obey. 

The  ichiles,  the  vaulted  shrine  around, 
Seraphic  wires  were  heard  to  sound. 

On  the  first  friendly  bank  he  throws  him  down. 

I'll  seek  the  solitude  he  sought. 
And  stretch  me  where  he  lay. 

Not  Hector's  self  should  want  an  equal  foe. 

m.  More  violent  and  peculiar  ellipses  are  allowable  in  poeti^  than 
in  prose ;  as, 

Suffice,  to-night,  these  orders  to  obey. 


178  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR,  §  9ft 

Time  is  our  tedious  song  should  here  have  ending. 

For  is  there  ought  in  sleep  can  charm  the  wise  ? 

'Tis  fancy  in  her  fiery  car, 
Transports  me  to  the  thickest  war. 

Who  never  fasts,  no  banquet  e'er  enjoys. 

Bliss  is  tiie  same  in  subject  as  a  king, 
In  who  obtain  defence,  or  who  defend. 

iV.  A  syllable  in  poetry  is  often  either  omitted  or  added  as  beti 

suits  the  measure  ;  as, 

Wail,  for  bewail ;  wilder,  for  bewilder ;  plaint,  for  complaint  ; 
amaze,  for  amazement;  eve  or  even,  for  evening;  helm,  for  helmet; 
morn,  for  morning;  lone,  for  lonely;  dread,  for  dreadful;  list,  for 
listen ;  ope,  for  open ;  lure,  for  allure ;  e'er,  for  ever ;  ne'er,  for 
never,  &c. 

The  language  of  poetry  may  be  said  to  be  a  dialect  appropriated 
almost  solely  to  this  species  of  composition.  Not  only  the  nature  of 
the  thoughts  and  sentiments,  but  the  very  selection  and  arrangement 
of  the  words,  gives  English  poetry  a  character,  which  separates  it 
widely  from  common  prose. 

V.  Adjectives  in  poetry  are  often  elegantly  connected  with  nouns 
which  they  do  not  strictly  qualify  ;  as, 

The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 

The  tenants  of  the  warbling  shade. 

And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant /o/ti*. 

VI.  The  rules  of  grammar  are  often  violated  by  the  poeta.  See 
Crombie  Rule  14. 

1.  A  noun  and  its  pronoun  are  often  used  in  reference  to  the  samd 
verb ;  as, 

It  ceased,  the  melancholy  sound. 

My  banks  they  are  furnished  with  bees. 

2.  The  imperfect  tense  and  the  perfect  participle  are  often  sabstitnted 
for  each  other,  especially  in  rhyme  ;  as. 

Though  parting  from  that  mother  he  did  shun, 
Before  his  weary  pilgrimage  begun. 


§  95.  PKOSODY.  179 

3.  An  adverb  is  oftenadmittedbetweenthe  verb  and  to,  the  ngn  of 

the  infinitive ;  as, 

To  sit  on  rocks,  to  muse  o'er  flood  and  fell; 
To  slowly  trace  the  forest's  shady  scenes. 

VII.  A  common  poetic  license  consists  in  employing  or  and  nor 
msXestd  o^  either  and  neither  ;  as. 


And  first 


Or  on  the  listed  plain,  or  stormy  sea. 
JVor  grief  nor  fear  shall  break  my  rest. 

VIII.  Intrans.  verbs  are  often  made  trans,  and  adjectives  used  hke 
abstract  nouns ;  as. 

The  lightnings yiosA  a  larger  curve. 

Still  in  harmonious  intercourse,  they  lived 
The  rural  day,  and  talked  the  flowing  heart. 

Meanwhile,  whate'er  o( beautiful  or  new, 
By  chance  or  search,  was  offered  to  his  view. 
He  scanned  with  curious  eye. 

IX.  Greek,  Latin,  and  other  foreign  idioms,  are  allowable  in  poetry 
though  inadmissible  in  prose ;  as. 

He  knew  to  sing,  and  build  the  lofty  rhyme. 

Give  me  to  seize  rich  Nestor's  shield  of  gold. 

There  are,  who  deaf  to  mad  ambition's  call 

Would  shrink  to  hear  the  obstreperous  trump  of  fame. 

Yet  to  their  generaPs  voice  they  all  obeyed. 

Never  since  created  man 

Met  such  imbodied  force. 

X.  Contractions  are  often  made  in  poetry,  which  are  not  allowable 
in  prose ;  and  letters  and  syllables  which  are  silent  in  prose  are  often 
sounded  in  poetry  ;  as. 

And  ne''er  again  the  boy  his  bosom  sought. 

They  praiserf  are  alone,  and  starve  right  merrily. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  licenses  allowed  to  poets,  but  denied  to  prose 
writers ;  and,  among  other  purposes  which  they  obviously  serve,  they 
enhance  the  pleasure  of  reading  pootic  composition,  by  increasing  the 


160  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  9G. 

boundary  of  separation  set  up,  especially  in  our  language,  between  it 
and  common  prose.  Were  such  licenses  not  permitted  in  poetry-,  the 
difficulty  attendant  upon  this  species  of  composition  would  probably 
be  so  great,  that  hardly  any  person  would  attempt  the  arduous  task  of 

writing  verse. 

§  96.  HINTS  FOR  CORRECT  AND  ELEGANT  WRITING. 

Correct  and  elegant  writing  depends  partly  upon  the  choice  of  words, 
and  partly  upon  the  form  and  structure  of  sentences. 

I.  In  so  far  as  respects  single  words,  the  chief  things  to  be  observed, 
are  Purity,  Propriety,  and  Precision. 

PURITY. 

Purity  consists  in  the  rejection  of  such  words  and  phrases  as  are  not 
strictly  English,  nor  in  accordance  with  the  practice  of  good  writers 
and  speakers. 

1.  Avoid  foreign  words  and  modes  of  expression  ;  as,  Fraicheur ; 
politesse  ;  he  repents  him  of  his  folly. 

2.  Avoid  obsolete  and  unauthorized  words ;  as,  Albeit,  aforetime, 
inspectator,  judgmatical. 

EXERCISES. 

The  person  is  without  encumberment.  In  the  country,  we  associate 
with  none  but  the  bettermost  sort  of  people.  Snails  exclude  their 
horns,  and  therewith  explorate  their  way.  Methinks  till  nov/  I  never 
heard  a  sound  more  dreary.  We  walked  adown  the  river  side.  Per- 
adventure  he  may  call  to-morrow.  He  is  a  very  impopular  speaker. 
I  like  his  great  candidness  of  temper. 

PROPRIETY. 

Propriety  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words  as  are  best  adapted  to 
express  our  meaning. 

1.  Avoid  low  and  provincial  expressions  ;  as,  to  get  into  a  scrape. 

2.  In  writing  prose,  reject  words  that  are  merely  poetical ;  as,  this 
morn  ;  the  celestial  orbs. 

3.  Avoid  technical  terms,  unless  you  write  to  those  who  perfectly 
understand  them. 

4.  Do  not  use  the  same  word  too  frequently,  or  in  different  senses ; 
as,  the  king  communicated  his  intention  to  the  minister,  who  disclosed 
it  to  the  secretary,  who  made  it  known  to  the  public;  His  own  rea- 
son  might  have  suggested  better  reasons. 

5.  Supply  words  that  are  wanting,  and  necessary  to  complete  the 
sense ;  thus,  instead  of  this  action  increased  his  former  services ;  say, 
this  action  increased  the  merit  of  his  former  services. 

6.  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  expressions  ;  as,  his  memory  shall 
be  lost  on  the  earth. 

7.  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inconsistent  expressions  ;  as,  I  have  an 
opaque  idea  of  what  you  mean. 

EXERCISES. 

The  composure  of  this  psalm  is  attributed  to  David.  They  will 
meet  at  eve.    Regard  should  be  paid  to  the  pupils'  intended  avoca- 


§  9fi. 


HINTS    FOR    WRITING.  181 


tions.  The  observation  of  the  Sabbath  is  incumbent  upon  every 
Christian.  The  neghgencc  of  this  leaves  us  exposed  to  uncommon 
levity.  He  put  an  end  to  his  own  existence.  I  propose  to  give  a 
general  view  of  the  subject.  I  wonder  if  he  will  come.  He  feels 
none  of  the  sorrows  that  usually  arrive  at  man.  War  should  be  so 
managed  as  to  remember  that  its  only  end  is  peace.  When  Johnson 
was  ill,  he  composed  a  prayer  to  deprecate  God's  mercy.  There  are 
both  more  and  more  important  truths.  He  lives  in  a  lone  cottage, 
'i'he  Latin  tongue  in  its  purity  was  never  in  this  island.  Imprudent 
associations  disqualify  us  for  the  instruction  or  reproof  of  others. 

PRECISION. 

Precision  rejects  superfluous  words. 

1.  Avoid  tautology ;  as,  his  faithfulness  and  fidelity  were  un- 
equalled. 

2.  Observe  the  exact  meaning  of  words  accounted  synonymous; 
thus,  instead  of,  though  his  actions  and  intentions  were  good,  he  lost 
his  character;  say,  he  lost  his  reputation. 

EXERCISES. 

I  took  some  wine  and  some  water,  and  mixed  them  both  together. 
He  wandered  throughout  the  whole  city.  They  abhorred  and  de- 
tested being  in  debt.  This  man  on  ail  occasions,  treated  those  around 
him  with  great  haughtiness  and  disdain.  His  wealth  and  riches  be- 
ing collected  and  accumulated  in  meanness,  were  squandered  in  riot 
and  extravagance.  Such  conduct  showed  a  marked  and  obvious  in- 
tention to  deceive  and  abuse  us.  He  had  proceeded  but  a  short  way 
on  his  journey,  when  he  returned  home  again. 

II.  With  respect  to  Sentences,  Clearness,  Unity,  Strength,  and  a 
proper  application  of  the  Figures  of  Speech,  are  necessary. 

CLEARNESS. 

Clearness  demands  a  proper  arrangement  of  words. 

1.  Adverbs,  relative  pronouns,  and  explanatory  phrases,  must  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  \yhich  they  affect,  and  in  such 
a  situation  as  the  sense  requires. 

2.  In  prose,  a  poetic  collocation  must  be  avoided. 

3.  Pronouns  must  be  so  used  as  clearly  to  indicate  the  word  for 
which  they  stand. 

EXERCISES. 

By  the  articles  subsisting  between  us,  on  the  day  marriage,  you 
agreed  to  pay  down  the  sum  of  eight  thousand  pounds.  Not  to  exas- 
perate him,  I  only  spoke  a  very  few  words.  It  has  not  a  wor-i,  says 
Pope,  but  what  the  author  religiously  thinks  in  it.  It  is  true  what  he 
says,  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  point.  Had  he  died  before,  would 
not  then  this  art  have  been  wholly  unknown.  Most  nations,  not  even 
excepting  the  Jews,  were  prone  to  idolatry.  He  will  soon  weary  the 
company,  who  is  himself  wearied. 

UNITY. 

Unity  retains  one  nredominant  object  through  a  sentence,  or  a  series 
of  clauses 

17 


182  ENGLISH    ORAMMAK.  §  9H. 

1.  Separate  into  distinct  sentences,  sacii  clauses  as  have  no  imme- 
diate connexion. 

2.  The  principal  words  must,  throughout  a  sentence,  be  the  most 
prominent,  and  the  leading  nominative  should,  if  possible,  be  the  sub- 
ject of  every  clause. 

3.  Avoid  the  introduction  of  parenthesis,  except  when  a  lively  re- 
mark may  he  thrown  in,  without  too  long  suspending  the  sense  of 
what  goes  before. 

EXERCISES. 

Desires  or  pleasure  usher  in  temptation,  and  the  growth  of  disor- 
derly passions  is  forwarded.  The  notions  of  Lord  Sunderland  were 
always  good,  hut  he  was  a  man  of  great  expense.  A  short  time  after 
this  injury,  he  came  to  liimsclf ;  and  tiie  ne.xl  day  they  put  him  on 
board  a  ship,  which  conveyed  liim  lirst  to  Corinth,  and  thence  to  the 
island  of  iEgina,  He  who  performs  every  employment  in  its  due 
place  and  season,  suffers  no  part  of  time  to  escape  without  profit ;  and 
tiuis  his  daj's  become  multiphed  ;  and  much  of  life  is  enjoyed  in  little 
space.  Never  delay  till  to-morrow,  (tijr  to-morrow  is  not  yours  ;  and 
though  you  should  live  to  enjoy  it,  you  must  not  overload  it  with  a 
burden  not  its  own,)  what  reason  and  conscience  tell  you  ought  to  be 
performed  to-day. 

STRENGTH. 

Strength  gives  to  every  word  and  every  member  its  due  impor- 
tance. 

1.  Avoid  tautology,  and  reject  all  superfluous  words  and  mem- 
bers. In  the  following  sentence,  the  word  printed  in  Italics  should 
be  omitted ;  being  conscious  of  his  own  integrity,  he  disdained  sub- 
mission. 

2.  Place  the  most  important  words  in  the  situation  in  which  they 
will  make  tlie  strongest  impression. 

3.  A  weaker  assertion  should  not  follow  a  stronger  ;  and,  when  the 
sentence  consists  of  two  members,  the  longer  should  he  the  concluding 
one. 

4.  When  two  things  are  compared  or  contrasted  witli  each  other, 
where  either  resemblance  or  opposition  is  to  be  expressed,  some  re- 
semblance in  the  language  and  construction  should  be  preserved. 

5.  A  sentence  should  not  be  concluded  with  a  preposition,  or  any 
inconsiderable  word  or  phrase,  unless  it  be  emphatic. 

EXERCISES. 

It  is  six  months  ago,  since  I  paid  a  visit  to  my  relations.  Sus- 
pend your  censure  so  long,  till  your  judgment  be  wisely  formed. 
The  reason  why  he  spoke  as  he  did,  he  never  explained.  If  I  mistake 
not,  I  think  he  has  made  great  improvement  since  1  last  saw  him. 
Those  two  gentlemen  appear  both  to  be  foreigners.  I  fear  this  is  the 
last  time  that  we  shall  ever  meet.  How  many  are  there,  by  whom 
these  tidings  of  good  news  were  never  heard.  This  measure  may  af- 
ford some  profit,  and  furnish  some  amusement  Thousht  and  lan- 
guage act  and  re-act  mutually  upon  each  other.  Sinful  pleasures 
blast  the  opening  prospects  of  human  felicity,  and  degrade  human 


§97. 


HINTS   FOR   WRITING.  183 


honor.     Generosity  is  a  splendid  virtue,  which  many  persons  aie  very 
fond  of!     As  no  one  is  without  his  failings,  so  few  want  good  quahtiea. 

FIGURES    OF    SPEECH. 

1.  Figurative  language  must  be  used  sparingly,  and  never  except 
when  it  serves  to  illustrate  or  enforce  what  is  said. 

2.  Figures  of  speech,  when  used,  should  be  such  as  appear  natural, 
not  remote  or  foreign  from  the  subject,  and  not  pursued  too  far. 

3.  Literal  and  figurative  language  ought  never  to  be  blended  toge- 
ther. 

4.  When  figurative  language  is  used,  the  same  figure  should  be  pre- 
served tiiroughout,  and  different  figures  never  jumbled  together. 

EXERCISES. 

No  human  happiness  is  so  serene  as  not  to  contain  some  alloy.  I 
intend  to  make  use  of  these  words  in  the  thread  of  my  speculations. 
Hope,  tlie  balm  of  life,  darts  a  ray  of  light  through  the  thickest  gloom. 
Let  us  keep  our  mouths  with  a  bridle,  and  steer  our  vessel  so  as  to 
avoid  the  rocks  and  shoals  which  meet  us  at  every  step.  We  are  all 
embarked  on  a  troubled  sea,  and  every  step  of  our  journey  brings  us 
into  new  perils.  Let  us  keep  alive  the  flame  of  devotion  ni  the  soul, 
and  not  suffer  our  minds  to  sink  into  utter  indifference  about  spiritual 
matters. 

PROMISCUOUS    EXERCISES. 

When  favors  of  every  kind  are  conferred  speedily,  they  are  doubled. 
I  wish  to  cultivate  your  acquaintance.  In  no  situation  did  he  ever,  at 
any  time,  make  so  poor  an  appearance.  Many  things  occur  which 
are  known  only  to  the  eye  of  him,  to  whom  all  things  lie  open  and  ex- 
posed. There  can  be  no  manner  of  doubt  but  that  his  services  will 
he  rewarded.  John's  temper  quite  disqualified  him  for  instruction. 
The  business,  in  which  he  was  then  engaged,  engrossed  the  whole  of 
his  time  and  attention.  He  disposed  of  his  house,  together  with  all 
his  furniture,  at  a  very  trifling  siun.  He  was  a  hoy  of  but  twelve 
years  old,  when  I  saw  him  at  his  father's.  No  employment  but  a 
bookseller  would  satisfy  him.  This  matter  I  had  a  great  mind  to  re- 
ply to.  He  must  pay  attention  both  to  what  goes  before,  and  imme- 
diately follows  after.  To-day  we  are  here ;  to-morrow  we  are 
gone.  I  went  home  full  of  a  great  many  serious  reflections.  Shall 
they  treat  as  visionary,  objects  which  they  nerer  have  made  them- 
selves acquainted  with.  I  perceived  that  it  had  been  scoured  with 
half  an  eye. 

§  97.     COMPOSITION. 

To  be  able  to  compose  with  ease  and  accuracy  is  one  of  the  first  of 
human  attainments.  It  is  the  fruit  of  careful  study  and  long  practice, 
requiring  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  language,  a  knowledge  of  its 
grammatical  structure,  as  well  as  an  intimacy  with  the  works  of  the 
most  distinguished  authors,  who  have  made  it  the  veliicle  for  commu- 
nicating their  thoughts. 


184  KNOLISU    GRAMMAR.  §  97 

As  a  preparatory  step  fo  the  important  business  of  composition.,  the 
,  upil,  after  he  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  grammar,  may  be  exer- 
cised witii  great  advantage  upon  the  transposition  of  words  and  mem- 
bers in  sentences,  so  as  to  try  in  how  many  different  ways  the  same 
thought  or  sentiment  may  be  expressed.  This  will  <;ive  him  a  con- 
siderable command  of  language,  and  prove,  at  the  same  lime,  a  source  ot 
considerable  mental  cultivation.  It  is  often  necessary  to  give  an  entirely 
new  turn  to  an  expression,  before  a  sentence  can  be  rendered  elegant 
or  even  perspicuous. 

There  are  chiefly  four  ways  in  which  the  mode  of  expressing  a 
thought  may  be  varied. 

1.  By  changing  an  active  into  a  passive,  or  a  passive  into  an  active 
verb  ;  as.  The  sun  dissolves  the  snow ;  The  snow  is  dissolved  by  the 
sun. 

2.  By  inversions  or  transpositions,  which  consist  in  changing  the 
order  in  which  the  words  stand  in  the  sentence ;  as.  Competence 
may  be  acquired  by  industry ;  By  industry  competence  may  be  ac- 
quired. 

3.  By  changing  an  affirmative  mto  a  negative,  or  a  negative  into  an 
affirmative,  of  an  entirely  contrary  character ;  as,  Virtue  promotef 
happiness  ;   Virtue  does  not  promote  misery. 

4.  By  either  a  partial  or  an  entire  change  of  the  words  employed  to 
express  any  sentiment;  as.  Diligence  and  application  are  the  best 
means  of  improvement;  Nothing  promotes  improvement  like  diligence 
and  application. 

EXERCISES    ON    TRANSPOSITION. 

The  Roman  state  evidently  declined,  in  proportion  to  the  increase 
of  luxury.  I  am  willing  to  remit  all  that  is  past,  provided  it  can  be 
done  with  safety.  A  good  man  has  respect  to  the  feelings  of  others 
in  all  that  he  says  or  does.  Bravely  to  contend  for  a  good  cause  is 
noble;  silen  tly  to  suffer  for  it  is  heroic.  Provided  he  be  himself  in 
comfortable  circumstances,  the  selfish  man  has  no  concern  about  the 
circumstances  of  others.  The  man  who  can  make  light  of  the  suffer- 
ings of  others,  is  himself  entitled  to  no  compassion.  Sloth  is  one  of 
man's  deadliest  enemies.  He  who  made  light  spring  from  primeva. 
darkness,  will,  at  last,  make  order  rise  from  the  seeming  confusion  of 
the  world. 

EXAMPLE    OF    TRANSPOSITION. 

The  Roman  state  evidently  declined,  in  proportion  to  the  increase 
of  luxury.  In  proportion  to  the  increase  of  luxury,  the  Roman  state 
evidently  declined.  The  Roman  state,  in  proportion  to  the  increase 
of  luxury,  evidently  declined. 

EXERCISES    ON    VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION. 

His  conduct  was  less  praise-worthy  than  his  sister's.  It  is  better 
to  be  moved  by  false  glory,  than  not  to  be  moved  at  all.  I  shall  at- 
tend the  meeting,  if  I  can  do  it  with  convenience.  He  who  improves 
in  modesty,  as  he  improves  in  knowledge,  has  an  undoubted  claim 
to  greatness  of  mind.  The  spirit  of  true  religion  breathes  gentleness 
and  affability.    There  is  no  such  obstacle  to  the  attainment  of  ex- 


§97. 


COMPOSITION.  186 


cellence,  as  the  power  of  producing,  with  facihty,  what  is  tolerably 
good.  Industry  is  not  only  the  instrument  of  improvement,  but  the 
foundation  of  pleasure.  A  wolf  let  into  the  sheep-fold,  will  devour  the 
sheep. 

EXAMPLE    OP    VARIETY    OF    EXPRESSION. 

His  conduct  was  less  praise-worlliy  than  his  sister's.  His  sister's 
conduct  wag  more  praise-worthy  than  his.  His  sister's  mode  of  act- 
ing was  entitled  to  more  praise  than  his.  His  conduct  was  les3  en- 
titled to  praise  than  that  of  his  sister,  &c. 

Another  exercise,  not  destitute  of  utility  as  a  foundation  for  compo- 
sition, consists  in  giving  the  pupil,  especially  if  very  young,  a  list  of 
words  with  directions  to  form  from  them  such  sentences  as  shall  con- 
tain these  words. 

EXERCISES. 

Construct  a  number  of  such  sentences  as  shall  each  contain  one  or 
more  of  tlie  following  words  : — Contentment,  behavior,  consideration, 
elevation,  distance,  apphcation,  respect,  duty,  intercourse,  evidence, 
social,  bereavement,  nonsensical,  absurdity,  elucidate,  consternation, 
temperance,  luxury,  disarm,  expatiate,  &c. 

LETTERS. 

One  of  the  simplest  and  yet  most  useful  species  of  composition, 
is  letter-writing.  This  species  of  composition  may  be  practised  cither 
by  way  of  real  correspondence  between  those  pursuing  the  same 
studies,  or  it  may  consist  of  letters  written  to  imaginary  correspon- 
dents. The  following  are  a  few  topics  adapted  to  composition  of  this 
latter  kind : 

Letter  \.if. — Write  to  a  friend  at  a  distance.  State  to  him  the  object 
of  yonr  writing.  Tell  him  what  studies  you  are  pursuing,  and  how 
you  like  them.  Mention  how  yourself  and  friends  are.  Give  an  ac- 
count of  some  of  the  alterations  which  have  been  lately  made,  or  are 
now  making  in  your  neighboriiood  ;  and  conclude  by  expressing  your 
desire  either  to  see  him  or  hear  from  him  soon. 

Letter  2il. — Write  to  a  companion  an  account  of  a  long  walk  which 
you  lately  had.  Tell  him  whether  you  were  alone  or  in  company. 
Mention  what  particular  things  struck  you  by  the  way;  and  enumer- 
ate all  the  incidents  that  occurred  of  any  moment. 

Letter  3(/. — Write  to  a  friend  who  is  supposed  to  have  sent  you  a 
present  of  books,  and  thank  him  for  such  kindness.  Tell  him  the  use 
you  intend  to  make  of  them  ;  and  inform  him  to  what  particular  books 
you  are  most  partial.  Conclude  by  giving  some  account  of  those  you 
have  been  lately  reading,  and  how  you  like  them. 

Letter  4th. — Write  to  a  friend  supposed  to  be  going  abroad.  De- 
scribe to  him  how  you  would  feel  if  called  to  leave  your  friends  and 
your  native  country.  Express  your  regret  at  losing  him  ;  but  state 
vour  hope  that  you  will  not  forget  each  other  when  seas  roll  between 


186  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  §  97. 

you.     Request  him  to  write  to  you  frequently  ;  and  advise  him  to  be 
careful  about  his  health,  and  of  the  society  he  keeps. 

Letter  5tli. — Write  to  a  friend  at  a  distance  ;  and  give  him  an  ac- 
count of  a  sail  which  you  lately  had  in  a  steam-boat.  MfnTion  what 
places  you  visited  ;  and  stale  the  objects  that  most  delij^htcd  you. 
Tell  him  how  long  you  were  away,  what  sort  of  weather  you  had, 
and  what  were  your  feelings  upon  returning  home. 

Letter  Gth. — Write  to  a  friend  an  account  of  the  church  you  were  at 
last  Sabbath.  Tell  who  preached  ;  mention  the  psalms  or  hymns  that 
were  sung;  and  the  portions  of  Scripture  that  were  read.  State  the 
texts  from  which  the  minister  preached  ;  and  give  your  opinion  of  the 
different  sermons. 

These  have  been  given  as  mere  specimens  of  the  subjects  upon  which 
the  student  who  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  grammar  may  be  re- 
quired to  write.  The  prudent  and  skilful  teacher  will  be  enabled  to 
multiply  and  vary  them  at  pleasure  and  to  any  extent. 

Another  method  of  exercising  the  minds  of  pupils  in  composition, 
consists  in  reading  some  simple  story  or  narrative,  till  sueh  time  as 
they  are  acquainted  with  the  facts,  and  then  directing  them  to  ex- 
press these  in  their  own  words.  A  still  further  and  perhaps  even  a 
simpler  method,  is,  to  take  advantage  of  a  young  person's  having 
given  some  account  of  what  he  has  either  seen,  heard,  or  read,  and  de- 
sire him  to  commit  to  writing  what  he  has  stated  orally. 

THEMES. 

The  next  step  in  composition  is  the  writing  of  regular  themes. 
The  subject,  however,  should  always  be  such  as  is  not  above  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  person  who  is  desired  to  compose,  or,  if  it  is,  the  whole 
benefit  resulting  from  the  exercise  will  be  nullified. 

A  theme  is  a  regular  set  subject  upon  which  a  person  is  required  to 
write ;  or  the  dissertation  that  has  been  written  upon  such  a  subject. 
Some  of  the  simplest  subjects  for  themes  are  those  drawn  from  natural 
history,  or  natural  philosophy.  At  all  events  they  should  not,  in  the 
first  instance,  be  drawn  from  subjects  of  an  abstruse  and  abstract 
character. 

The  following  may  serve  as  specimens  in  this  department : — 

Theme  1st. — The  horse. — 1.  Describe  what  sort  of  animal  the 
horseis.  2.  Tellsomeof  the  different  kinds.  3.  Mention  the  various 
ways  in  which  this  noble  animal  is  serviceable  to  man.  4.  State 
what  would  be  the  consequence  of  wanting  him.  5.  Mention  the 
treatment  to  which  he  is  entitled,  and  the  cruelty  of  ill-using  such  a 
creature. 

Write  themes  upon  the  cow,  the  dog,  the  sheep,  and  upon  poultry  ; 
and  follow  the  same  plan  as  that  which  you  followed  in  writing  upon 
the  horse. 

Theme  2(1. — The  sun.— 1.  Begin  by  stating  what  the  sun  is.  2. 
Tell  all  you  know  of  its  size,  figure,  and  distance  from  our  earth.  3. 
Mention  the  effect  it  has  upon  the  earth,  and  the  benefits  wc  derive 


6  97.  COMPOSITION.  187 

from  it.  4.  State  what  would  be  the  consequence  if  the  sun  were  ex- 
tinguished ;  and  what  our  feehngs  ous^ht  to  be  toward  the  Supreme 
Being  for  such  an  object 

Write  themes  upon  the  moon,  the  stars,  fire,  air,  and  water;  and 
m  all  follow  the  same  plan. 

Theme  3d. — Day  and  night. — 1.  Tell  what  you  mean  by  day  and 
night.  2.  State  whether  they  are  always  alike  long  ;  and  what  "is  the 
advantage  arising  from  their  lengths  being  different  at  different  sea- 
sons. 3.  Mention  the  different  pur[)Oses  for  which  they  are  adapted. 
4.  Say  of  what  the  continued  succession  of  day  and  night  is  fitted  to 
remind  us,  and  how  this  should  lead  us  to  act. 

\Vrite  themes  upon  the  different  seasons,  and  upon  mountains,  ri- 
vers, and  the  tides  of  the  sea  ;  and  follow  a  similar  plan  in  the  whole. 

Theme  4th. — On  Composition. — 1.  Explain  what  you  mean  by  this 
term.  2.  Point  out  the  necessity  of  studying  this  art,  by  showing 
how  much  it  contributes  to  add  to  the  value  of  one's  knowledge. 
3.  Mentie  1  vvhat  is  necessary  to  fit  one  for  composing  well.  4.  State 
the  means  l)y  which  skill  in  this  art  is  to  be  obtained. 

Theme  5th. — On  Company. — 1.  E.xplain  what  you  mean  by  compa- 
ny. 2.  Show  how  natural  it  is  for  man  to  seek  society.  3.  State  the 
danger  of  keeping  either  too  much  company,  or  of  keeping  bad  com- 
panv.     4.  Point  out  tlie  advantages  of  good  company. 

Write  themes  upon  Conversation,  Study,  Improvement  of  Time, 
Choice  of  Books,  Mciuory,  t!ie  different  Organs  of  Sense,  &:c.  ;  and 
in  all  follow  the  same  method  as  you  did  in  writing  on  Company. 

Theme  6th. — A^arrativcs. — Describe  the  place  or  scene  of  the  actions 
related— the  persons  concerned  in — ilie  time — posture  of  affairs — 
state  ol"  mind,  motives,  ends  &c.  of  the  actors — results. 

Write  th.emes  upon  The  discovery  of  America.  The  French  War. 
The  Revolutionary  War.  The  Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill.  The  French 
Revolution. 

Theme  7th. — Dissertations  on  remarkable  events  in  sacred  or  profane 
history, — 7'he  p!;ice — the  origin — the  circumstances — results — moral 
influence,  &,c. 

Folio  winfr  tliis  or  a  similar  arraiitrertient  of  parts,  write  a  composition 
on  'I'he  Crcntioii— Death  of  Abel— The  Deluf,^e — The  World  after 
the  Flood — The  Tower  of  Babel— The  Israelites  in  Egypt — Their 
deliverance  from  it — Thi;  f,'ivifi.?  of  the  law  from  Sinai — The  Advent 
of  the  Messiah — his  death — resurrection — Destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
he — The  Seiue  of  Troy — Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Romnn  Empire — The 
Crtisades — The  burtiiii^i  of  Moscow — The  battle  of  Waterloo — The 
ieaih  of  Bonaparte,  &-c. 

Thn/ie  tilh. — Give  an  account  of  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
characters  in  different  ayes  of  the  World — Warriors,  Statesmen,  Ar- 
tists, Philosophers,  Poets,  Orators,  Divines,  Philanthropists; — mc*- 
u'oning  what  is  known  respecting  their  country,  parentage,  education 
character,  principles,  exploits,  influence  on  society,  for  good  or  evii 
death. 


188 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


§  97 


The  following  list  of  tlieiiiea  is  selected  from  Parker's  Exercises  in 
Composition. 

26.  On  Fortune,  51.  On  Ocean, 

Fear, 

Forgiveness, 
Government, 
Grammar, 


1.  On  Attention, 

2.  "  Adversity, 
Ardor  of  mind. 
Art, 


27. 
28. 
29. 


Attachment,  local,  30. 


3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 

21.  " 

22.  " 

23.  " 

84.  " 

85.  " 

76.  Knowledge  is  Power, 

77.  Progress  of  Error, 

78.  Progress  of  Truth, 

79.  Government  of  the  Tongue, 

80.  Government  of  the  Temper, 


"  Anger, 
"  Air, 
"  Benevolence, 
"  Beauty, 
"  Biography, 
"  Bad  Scholar, 
"  Charity, 
"  Clemency, 
"  Compassion, 
"  Conscience, 
"  Constancy, 
"  Carelessness, 
"  Curiosity, 
"  Cheerfulness, 
"  Contentment, 
"  Diligence, 
"  Duplicity, 
"  Early  Rising, 
"  Envy, 
"  Friendship, 


31. 
32. 
33. 
31. 
35. 
3G. 
37. 
.38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
41. 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 


52. 
53. 
54. 
55. 
Greatness,  true,  56. 


Genius, 

Habit, 

Honour. 

Happiness, 

Humility, 

Hypocrisy, 

History, 

Hope, 

Indolence, 

Industry, 

Ingratitude, 

Justice, 

Learning, 

Love  of  Fame, 

Music, 

Moon, 

Novelty, 

Night, 

Order, 


57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 
CI. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
6S. 
69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 


Pride, 

Party  Spirit, 
Poverty, 
Principle, 
Perseverance, 
Patriotism, 
'Politeness, 
Providence, 
Punctuality, 
Poetry, 
Piety, 
Religion, 
Reading, 
Sincerity, 
Summer, 
•Spring, 
Sun, 
Svstem, 
Truth, 
Time, 
Talent, 
Vanity, 
Virtue, 
Wealth, 


91.  Public  Opinion, 

92.  Diligence  ensures  Success, 

93.  Ifileness  destroys  Character, 

94.  Contrivance  proves  Design, 
93.  Avoid  Extremes, 


81.  Government  of  the  Affections,  96.  Visit  to  an  Almshouse, 


97.  Pleasures  of  Memory, 

98.  Example  better  than  Precept, 

99.  Misery  is  wed  to  Guilt, 

100.  Value  of  Time, 

101.  Virtue,  the  way  to  Happiness, 

102.  No  one  lives  for  Himself, 

103.  Thou  God  seest  me, 

104.  Trust  not  Appearances, 

105.  Whatever  is,  is  Right, 


82.  Local  Attachments, 

83.  The  Power  of  Association, 

84.  The  Immortality  of  the  Soul, 

85.  The  Uses  of  Knowledge, 

86.  Power  of  Conscience, 

87.  The  Power  of  Habit, 

88.  Life  is  Short, 

89.  Miseries  of  Idleness, 

90.  Never  too  old  to  learn, 

106.  "An  honest  man's  the  noblest  work  of  God." 

107.  Every  man  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune. 

108.  Man,  "Mysterious  link  in  being's  endless  chain." 

109.  "  A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing." 

110.  How  blessings  brighten,  as  they  take  their  flight. 

111.  Advantages  derived  from  the  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass 

—of  the  telescope — the  steam  engine — the  art  of  print- 
ing— of  gunpowder. 

112.  History  of  a  needle — a  cent — a  Bible — a  beaver  hat. 

113.  Description  of  a  voyage  to  England — coast  of  Africa — Constanti- 

nople— South  America — ^East  Indies^^hina. 


APPENDIX. 


I.    GRAMMAR. 

The  object  of  Grammar,  in  a  general  sense,  is  to  investigate 
the  principles  of  language,  and  from  a  careful  analysis  of  these^ 
to  lay  down  a  system  of  rules  and  principles,  by  observing  which, 
we  may  be  enabled  to  express  our  thoughts  in  a  particular  lan- 
guage in  a  correct  and  proper  manner.  Such  a  collection  of  rules 
and  principles  applicable  to  the  English  language,  with  directions 
for  their  use  in  the  most  simple,  brief,  and  convenient  manner, 
has  been  attempted  in  the  preceding  pages. 

When  we  speak  of  Grammar  as  a  system  of  rules,  it  is  not  to  be 
understood  that  the  rules  are  first  established,  and  the  language 
afterwards  modelled  in  conformity  to  these.  The  very  reverse  is 
the  fact;  language  is  antecedent  to  grammar.  "No  grammarian 
can  of  his  own  authority  alter  the  phraseology  of  any  expression, 
or  assign  to  a  word  a  signification  different  from  that  which  has 
been  allotted  to  it  by  established  usage.  He  must  take  the  lan- 
guage as  it  f^,  not  as  he  would  wish  it  to  be.  He  may,  indeed, 
recommend  this  or  that  mode  of  expression,  as  more  agreeable  to 
analogy,  but  it  must  remain  with  the  public  whether  or  not  his 
advice  be  adopted.  From  the  decision  of  general,  reputable,  and 
established  usage,  there  lies  no  appeal.  His  business  is  to  observe 
the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  words,  the  similarity  or  dis- 
similarity between  different  forms  of  expression;  to  reduce  those 
that  are  similar,  under  the  same  class,  and  by  a  careful  induction 
of  particulars,  establish  general  propositions.  Nor  is  it  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  he  should  know  by  what  means  this  or  that 
phraseology  came  into  use,  or  why  this  or  that  word  forms  an  ex- 
ception to  a  general  rule;  it  is  sufficient  for  his  purpose  if  he  does 
know  that  it  is  an  exception,  and  knowing  it,  points  it  out  to 
otliers." 

"  By  arranging  the  various  rules  and  principles  of  a  language 
into  a  systematic  form,  permanency  is  given  to  what  would  other- 
wise be  subject  to  fluctuation  or  involved  in  obscurity;  the  rela- 
tive connexion  and  importance  of  the  rules,  become  clearly  as- 
cerltined,  and  the  whole  is  rendered  more  easy  of  being  acquired 
and  retained,  and  ai)i)lied  with  facility  and  correctness." 

"  Prior  to  the  publication  of  Lowth's  excellent  little  grammar, 
the  grammatical  study  of  our  own  language,  formed  no  part  of  t\}fi 
ordinary  method  of  instruction,  and  consequently  the  writings  of 
the  best  authors  were  frequently  inaccurate.  Subsequent  to  that 
period,  however,  attention  has  been  paid  to  this  important  sub 


190  APrr.NDlX. GRAMMAR.  1 

ject,  and  the  chan?;c  (hat  has  laken  ))lace  both  in  our  written  and 
oral  language,  has  eviilenceil  tlie  tlccitled  aUvantag-es  resulting  from 
such  a  plan. 

"  The  Grammar  which  has  attained  the  greatest  celebrity  for 
general  use,  is  that  by  Mr.  Murray.  In  this  work,  he  has  embo- 
died the  principles  and  rules  which  were  deduced  by  the  most  cele- 
brated grammarians  that  preceded  him,  and  by  arranging  the  whole 
in  a  better  order,  has  rendered  it  decidedly  superiorto  every  work 
of  the  kind  which  existed  before  its  appearance." — JJiley's  Preface. 

Since  that  time,  many  works  have  been  published  of  various  de- 
grees of  merit,  most  of  which  have  had  for  their  object,  not  so 
much  to  investigate  more  thoroughly  the  princii)les  of  language,  as 
to  simplify  and  elucidate  principles  already  investigated.  The 
Etymology  and  Syntax  of  Dr.  Crombie,  lately  iiublished,  though 
not  intended  for  the  use  of  schools,  is  a  most  valuable  addition  to 
the  stock  of  original  works  on  this  subject.  "  The  inilustry  of  re- 
search, and  acuteness  of  discrimination,  which  he  has  evinced  in 
the  collection  and  comparison  of  diSerent  forms  of  speech,  have 
thrown  great  light  upon  many  dilRculties,  and  his  conclusions  must 
in  general  serve  as  land  marks  to  the  future  traveller."  Some 
works  of  an  eccentric  character  have  also  at  times  appeared,  whose 
authors,  smitten  with  a  passion  for  novelty  or  singularity,  have 
manifested  much  more  capacity  for  pulling  down,  than  building 
up, — for  finding  fault  with  that  which  is  good  already,  than  for 
producing  something  better  in  its  place.  Still  the  labors  of  even 
these,  are  not  without  their  use.  Like  the  violence  of  the  tempest 
which  shakes  the  sturdy  oak,  and  causes  it  to  strike  its  roots  deeper 
and  firmer  in  the  parent  soil,  they  only  more  firmly  establish  that 
which  cannot  be  overthrown. 

The  principles  of  language,  which  grammar  as  a  science  inves- 
tigates, are  general  and  permanent.  They  belong  to  all  langua- 
ges, and  remain  the  same  however  they  may  be  classed,  or  in 
whatever  terms  they  may  be  expressed.  Hence  it  is,  that  the 
grammars  of  all  languages  are  substantially  the  same,  and  differ 
only  in  minor  details,  as  idiom  and  usage  require.  This  is  as  it 
should  be.  No  good  reason  can  be  given  for  making  a  grammar 
of  the  English  language,  for  example,  toto  ccdo,  different  from  the 
grammars  of  other  languages,  ancient  or  modern.  And  yet  it  has 
been,  and  still  is,  the  practice  of  some  to  declaim  against  the  ex- 
isting systems  of  English  Grammar,  because,  as  they  say,  they  are 
conformed  to  the  grammars  of  the  dead  languages,  or  to  those  of 
foreign  nations.  Though  such  efforts  may  prevail  for  a  season  and 
with  a  few,  more  mature  reflection  usually  dissipates  the  delusion. 
It  is  well  known  that  novices  in  every  science,  are  constantly  mak- 
ing discoveries,  and  these  appear  to  them  for  a  time  so  impor- 
tant and  wonderful,  that  they  sometimes  think  they  cannot  fail  to 
astonish  the  world,  revolutionize  the  science,  and  immortalize 
themselves.  It  happens  too,  that  such  discoveries  are  usually  in 
proportion  to  the  want  of  discrimination  and  intelligence  of  those 


II,  APPENDIX. CLASSIFICATION    OF  WOBDS.  191 

who  make  them.  A  more  extended  acquaintance  with  facts  and 
principles,  will  often  prove,  even  to  themselves,  that  their  great 
discoveries  are  only  the  crude  and  exploded  fancies  of  other  men 
and  other  days,  long  since  abandoned  as  untenable  and  worthless. 
Discoveries  of  such  a  character  are  sometimes  made  in  grammar 
also,  and  such,  too,  is  often  their  origin  and  their  end. 

The  system  of  English  grammar  as  we  now  have  it  in  the  best 
works,  or  in  what  some  are  pleased  to  call  the  "  Old  grammars," 
rests  on  a  more  solid  foundation.  Men  of  sound,  discriminating, 
and  philosophical  minds — men  prepared  for  the  work  by  long  stu- 
dy-, patient  investigation,  and  extensive  acquirements,  have  labored 
for  ages  to  improve  and  perfect  it,  and  nothing  is  hazarded  in  as- 
serting, that  should  it  be  unwisely  abandoned,  it  will  be  long  be- 
fore another  equal  in  beauty,  stability  and  usefulness,  be  produced 
in  its  stead. 

II.     CLASSIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 

Language,  written  or  spoken,  consists  of  words.  In  combining 
these  into  propositions  and  sentences,  so  as  to  express  our  ideas  in 
i  correct  and  intelligent  manner,  an  accurate  knowledge  of  their 
forms,  changes  and  functions,  is  necessary, — and  this  again  can  be 
attained  only  by  a  proper  classification  of  them  according  to  their 
distinguishing  characteristics  and  uses  in  the  communication  of 
thought.  The  importance  of  Ihis  has  always  been  felt  by  gram- 
marians, and  various  classifications  have  been  maile,  differing  froim 
each  other  according  to  the  jirinciples  assumed  as  their  basis.  The 
essentials  of  speech  were  anciently  supposed  to  be  sufficiently  de- 
signated by  the  Noun  and  llie  i^erb,  to  which  was  subsequently  ad- 
deil,  the  Conjandwu.  In  modern  times,  the  parts  of  speech  have 
been  denominated  Substantives,  Attributives,  Definitives,  and  Con- 
nectives. Sucli  a  classification,  however,  is  too  general  to  be  of 
much  use  in  grammar.  To  group  together  under  one  head,  words 
specifically  difTerent  in  their  character  and  use,  can  tend  only  to 
confusion;  and  to  multiply  divisions  which  can  serve  no  practical 
purpose,  is  an  extreme  equally  unprofitable. 

By  a  careful  analysis  of  language,  we  find  that  some  words  are 
employed  to  express  the  names  of  things,  others  to  indicate  their 
qualities;  some  express  action,  or  state  under  various  modifica- 
tions, others  are  used  in  connection  with  these  to  point  out  circum- 
stances  of  time,  place,  manner,  order,  degree,  &c.;  some  are  em- 
ployed to  denote  certain  relations  of  things  to  each  other,  and  oth- 
ers again,  chiefly  to  connect  the  different  parts  of  a  sentence  toge- 
ther. This  diversity  in  the  use  of  words,  is  as  real,  and  as  dis- 
tinctl}'  marked  as  the  functions  of  the  bones,  muscles,  arteries,  and 
nerves  of  the  human  system,  and  forms  a  basis  of  classification 
equally  proper  in  all  languages. 

On  this  principle  of  classification,  the  later  Greek  grammarians 
divided  words  into  eight  classes  or  parts  of  speech,  viz:  Uie  Arti- 


192  APPENDIX. CLASSES    OF    WORDS.  III.        1 

cle,  Noun,  Pronmin,  Verb,  Pnrliciple,  Adrcrh,  Prcprmtum,  ami  Con- 
junction. The  Romans  h;u\  no  Arliclr,  hut  rrtained  llie  same  num- 
ber by  ilistinguisliing  "netween  Aiherbs  ami  Inferjfctions.  IJoth 
included  under  the  ternri  Noun,  the  names  of  things,  and  words 
expressive  of  their  fiualitles;  the  former  they  calletl  Substantive 
Nouns, — the  latter  Adjective  Konns.  These  were  subsequently 
ranked  as  two  distinct  classes,  commonly  called  Nouns  or  Substan- 
tives, and  Adjectives;  and  the  participle  was  restoreil  to  the 
verb,  to  which  it  projierly  belong-s.  This  classification,  with  lit- 
tle variation,  has  been  adojjted  by  the  best  English  g-ranimarians, 
and  remains  in  general  use  even  at  this  day;  and  thor.gh  not  abso- 
lutely perfect  or  incapable  of  improvement,  still  it  is  sufficient  for 
all  practical  puri)oses,  and  is  i)erhaps,  on  the  whole,  the  best  that 
has  yet  been  proposed.  Objections  to  it  merely  on  the  ground 
that  it  agrees  with  the  generally  received  classification  of  ancient, 
or  foreign  languages,  are  just  about  as  reasonable  as  objections  to 
the  anatomical  classifications  of  ancient  or  foreign  nations  would 
be,  merely  because  they  happen  to  tliffer  in  stature,  complexion, 
or  features,  from  ourselves.  Such  objections  have  been,  and  still 
continue  to  be  made,  the  futility  of  ■which  needs  no  better  illus- 
tration than  the  fact,  that  after  all,  their  authors  have  offered  little 
else  in  its  stead,  than  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  divisions  under 
different  names. 

III.     REMARKS  ON  DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF 
WORDS. 

1.     THE  ARTICLE. 

The  Article  may  properly  be  regarded  as  an  adjective  word, 
i.  e.  it  is  always  employed  in  connexion  with  a  noun  or  with 
words  and  phrases  used  as  such.  In  Greek,  and  also  in  other  lan- 
guages, it  is  ileclined  like  the  adjective,  and  comes  under  the  same 
rules  of  concord  with  it.  The  Articles  in  English  are  A  or  An, 
and  The.  Of  these,  the  first  is  used  to  individualize  without  re- 
stricting. It  is  thereiore  appropriately  termed  Indefinite,  and  is 
never  used  but  with  the  singular  number. 

This  word  is  evidently  a  derivative  of  the  Saxon  numeral  Ane, 
(one,)  shortened  by  the  absence  of  emphasis  into  An;  or  it  may 
be  regarded  as  the  same  word  used  in  a  particular  wa)-.  For  the 
sake  of  euphony,  the  n  is  dropped  before  a  consonant,  and  because 
most  words  begin  with  a  consonant,  this  of  course  is  its  more  com- 
mon form.  In  the  French,  German,  and  other  languages,  which 
have  the  indefinite  Article,  its  form  is  the  same  with  their  nume- 
ral one,  and  in  reading  or  speaking,  is  distinguished  from  it  by  em- 
phasis only.  Still,  in  these  languages  it  is  not  regarded  as  a  nu- 
meral, its  office  being  specifically  tlifferent.  The  office  of  the  nu- 
meral is  to  designate  number  only — one  as  opposed  to  two  or  more. 
But  though  from  its  nature,  this  article  is  joined  only  with  the 


III.       1.  APPENDIX. CLASS JES    OF    WORDS.  193 

singulafj  yet  number  is  not  the  idea  it  is  used  to  convey,  but  sim- 
ply to  indicate  an  individual  indefinitely.  An  example  will  illus- 
trate tliis.  If  I  say,  "Will  one,  man  be  able  to  carry  this  burden 
so  far?"  I  evidently  oppose  one  to  more,  and  the  answer  might 
be  "No;  but  two  men  will."  But  if  I  say  '«  Will  a  man  be  able 
to  carry  this  burden?"  it  is  manifest  the  idea  is  entirely  changed, 
the  reference  is  not  to  number,  but  to  the  species,  and  the  answer 
might  be  "No;  but  a  hoi-se  will."  Translate  these  two  sentences 
into  Latin  or  Greek,  or  any  language  whicli  does  not  use  the  in- 
definite article,  and  the  first  willnecessarily  have  the  numeral,  the 
second  will  as  necessarily  want  it.  In  this  respect,  the  English 
has  manifestly  a  decided  advantage  over  those  languages  in  which 
the  same  term  is  used  both  as  an  article  and  a  numeral ;  and  hence 
it  appears  to  me  that  to  class  this  article  as  a  numeral,  as  some 
have  proposed,  would  not  only  be  in  some  measure  to  relinquish 
this  ailvantage,  but,  by  combining  under  one  head,  words  whose 
use  is  so  widely  ditfeient,  would  prove  an  injury  instead  of  an  im- 
provement. 

The  Article  The,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used  to  restrict,  and  is 
therefore  termed  Definite.  Its  proper  office  is  to  call  the  attention 
to  a  particular  individual  or  class,  or  to  any  number  of  such,  and 
is  used  with  nouns  in  either  the  singular  or  plural  number.  This 
word  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  Saxon  Se,  (that,)  plural  Tha, 
and  is  distinguisheil  from  the  demonstratives  thin,  and  that,  much 
in  the  same  way  that  a  is  distinguished  from  the  numeral  one.  The 
Greeks  had  a  separate  word  for  this  purj)ose,  which  the  early 
grammarians  called  the  prepositive  Article,  from  its  position  before 
its  noun;  and  to  distinguisli  it  from  the  relative  pronoun  which 
tliey  called  the  postpositive  Article,  usually  placed  after  it.  These 
two  words,  in  many  sentences,  were  used  relatively  to  each  other, 
and  like  a  joint,  \Artiadiis,)  from  which  the  name  is  derived, 
served  to  unite  the  two  members  of  the  sentence  to  which  they 
respectively  belongeil,  into  one  whole.  This  designation,  origi- 
nally given  to  this  word  from  one  of  its  prevailing  uses,  continued 
to  be  applied  to  it  not  only  after  the  postpositive  Article  was  more 
appropriately  called  the  Relative  pronoun,  but  also  in  cases  in 
which  no  conjunction  of  the  parts  of  a  sentence  was  effected;  and 
modern  grannnarians  have  extendeel  it  to  the  word  known  as  the 
Indefinite  Article.  Whether  a  more  appropriate  designation  for 
these  words  should  now  be  devised,  or  whether  they  might  be 
classed  under  some  other  head,  are  questions  of  no  practical  mo- 
ment. The  words  exist  in  the  language,  they  have  a  specific  of- 
fice to  perform,  they  have  peculiarities  of  construction  which  be- 
long to  no  other  class  of  words,  they  are  only  two  in  number,  and 
are  easily  distinguished  from  other  parts  of  speech,  and  if  these 
considerations  should  not  be  considered  sufficient  to  entitle  them 
strictly  and  philosophically  to  a  separate  denomination,  they  are 
such  at  any  rate  as  to  render  it  convenient  and  useful;  and  if  so, 
it  seems  imwise  for  the  sake  of  a  trivial  advantage,  even  if  (hat 


194  Ari'E.NUix. — TUi:  noun.  III.     2. 

could  be  gained,  lo  disturb  the  settled  language  of  gramtnar  on 
this  itoint,  ariil  so  to  destroy  its  present  similarity  to  that  of  most 
Other  languages,  in  which  this  division  and  nomenclature  are  re- 
ceived. 

In  many  sentences,  TlvR  and  That,  are  nearly  equivalent,  and  the 
sense  will  be  the  same  by  using  either,  as  "  The  man,  or  that  niaa 
who  hath  no  music  in  bis  soul,"  &c.  This,  however,  does  not  al- 
ways hoUl;   "The  dilFerence,"  says  Cronibie,  "seems  to  be 

1st.  The  Article  the,  lilie  a,  must  have  a  substantive  joined  with 
it,  whereas  fAaf,  lilce  one,  may  have  it  unilerstood;  thus,  speaking 
of  books,  I  may  select  one,  anil  saj',  'give  me  that;'  but  not, 
'give  nieWiC;'  'give  mc  ti/je,-'  but  not  'give  me  a.'  Here  the 
analogy  hokls  biUvvccn  a  and  nne;  the  and  that. 

2d.  "In  general,  the  ilislinction  between  </te  and  tfiat,  seems  to 
be  that  the  latter  marks  tlie  object  more  enjphatically  than  the 
foi'mer,  being  indirectly  opposed  to  tMs.  I  cannot,  for  example, 
say  '  that  man  with  that  long  bcanl,'  without  implying  a  contrast 
witli  this  man  with  this  long  beard;  the  wonl  that  being  always 
emphatical  and  discriminative." 

2.     THE  NOUN  OR  SUBSTANTIVE. 

The  characteristic  of  tliis  class  of  words,  is  (hat  they  are  names. 
Every  word  that  is  the  name  of  any  thing  that  exists,  whether 
material  or  immaterial,  or  of  any  thing  that  is,  or  can  be  made 
the  subject  of  thought  or  iliscourse,  is  a  noun.  Hence  it  follows, 
that  letters,  marns,  or  characters,  and  words  used  independently 
of  their  meaning  and  merely  as  things  sptdcen  of,  are  nouns;  thus 
.4  is  a  vowel;  honor  is  sometimes  spelled  with  a  u,  and  sometimes 
without  it;  th  has  two  sounils;  us  is  a  pronoun;  I  will  have  no  ifs 
or  buts;  -\-  is  the  sign  of  addition.  Hence  also  the  infinitive  mood, 
a  participle,  a  member  of  a  sentence,  or  a  proposition,  forniing 
together  the  subject  of  iliscoiurse,  or  the  object  of  a  verb  or  pre- 
position, and  being  the  name  of  an  act  or  circumstance,  are  in  con- 
struction, regarded  as  nouns,  and  are  usually  callcil  "  substantive 
phrases;"  as  "  To  play  is  pleasant,"  "  Jlis  being  an  expert  dancer 
is  no  recommendation,"  "  Let  your  motto  be  '  IIiHcstij  is  the  be^t 
policy.'" 

The  Accidents  of  the  noun,  in  English,  are  in  general,  the 
same  as  in  other  languages,  i.  e.  they  have  Person,  Gender,  Number, 
and  Case;  though  in  the  details  of  these,  there  is  some  diversity 
in  different  languages,  and  even  in  dilferent  grammars  of  the  same 
language. 

1st.  Person. — The  person  of  nouns  is  not  determined  by  any 
difference  of  form,  as  in  pronouns,  but  simply  by  their  relation  to 
the  discourse.     In  direct  discourse,  *  a  noun  used  by  a  spealcer  or 


*  Discourse  is  said  to  be  direct,  when  a  writer  or  speaker  delivers  his 
own  sentiments;  as,  "I  am  the  man."  Oblique,  when  he  relates  in  his 
his  own  language,  the  sayings  of  another;  as,  "He  says  that  he  is  the 
man."    Sce^Lat.  Gr.  ^141,  Rule  VI. 


III.       2.  APPENDIX. THE    NOUN.  195 

writer  to  designate  himself,  is  said  to  be  of  thejirst  person — used 
to  designate  the  person  addressed,  it  is  said  to  be  of  the  second 
person,  and  when  used  to  designate  a  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  il 
is  said  to  be  of  the  third  person.  It  is  obvious  then  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  case,  that  those  words  only  can  be  of  the  first  or  second 
person,  which  denote  intelligent  beings,  or  which  by  personifi- 
cation are  regarded  as  such,  for  no  other  can  either  speak  or  be 
properly  spoken  to,  and  they  are  usually  in  apposition  with  the 
first  or  second  personal  pronouns,  as  "  I,  Artaxerxes  make  a  de- 
cree," "  I,  thy  father-in-law  Jethi-o,  am  come  unto  thee,"  "  Thou, 
God  seest  me." 

A  noun  in  the  predicate,  however,  denoting  either  the  speaker, 
or  the  person  spoken  to,  is  generall}'  regarded  as  in  the  third  per- 
son; thus,  "  I  am  he  that  liveth  and  was  dead,"  "I  am  Alpha  and 
Omega — who  is,  and  who  was,  and  who  is  to  come."  For  this 
construction,  and  the  variation  of  meaning  which  a  change  of  per- 
son commonly  indicates  see  §59,  R.  II,  Obs.  This  rule,  however, 
does  not  hold  universally.  In  the  following  sentence,  "  Verily 
thou  art  a  God  that  hidest  thyself,"  the  word  "  God,"  in  the  pre- 
dicate, is  evidently  regarded  as  of  the  second  person.  So  also  in 
the  phrases  "  It  is  I,"  "  It  is  thou,"  &c.  In  oblique  discourse,  the 
third  person  only  can  be  used. 

2d.  Gender. — In  all  languages,  the  distinction  of  nouns  with  re- 
gard to  sex,  has  been  noted.  Every  substantive  denotes  cither  a 
male  or  female,  or  that  which  is  neither  the  one  nor  the  other. 
This  accident,  or  characteristic  of  nouns,  is  called  their  Gender. 
In  English,  all  words  denoting  male  animals,  are  considered  as 
masculine;  all  those  denoting  female  animals, /e?;i//un.e;  and  those 
denoting  things  neither  male  nor  female,  are  termed  neuter.  "  In 
this  distribution,"  says  Cronibie,  "  we  follow  the  order  of  nature, 
and  our  language  is  in  this  respect,  both  simple  and  animated." 
Both  in  Latin  and  Greek,  many  words  denoting  things  witliout  sex, 
are  ranked  as  masculine  or  feminine,  without  any  regard  to  their 
meaning,  but  simply  on  account  of  tlieir  terminations.  In  French, 
all  nouns  are  regarded  as  either  masculine  or  feminine,  which  is 
a  still  greater. departure  from  the  order  and  simplicity  of  nature, 
for  which  the  English  Language  on  this  point  is  distinguished. 

Some  have  objected  to  the  (lesignation  of  three  genders;  they 
think  that  as  there  are  but  two  sexes,  it  wouUl  be  more  philoso- 
phical and  accurate,  to  say  there  are  only  two  genders,  and  to  re- 
gard all  words  not  belonging  to  these,  as  without  gender.  A  little 
reflection,  I  think,  will  show  that  this  objection  has  no  just  found- 
ation, either  in  philosophy  or  in  fact,  and  that  the  change  it  pro- 
poses would  be  no  improvement.  It  has  probably  arisen  from 
confounding  the  word  gender,  which  properly  signifies  a  kind, 
class,  or  species,  (Lat.  p,enus,  French  genre,)  with  the  word  sex, 
and  considering  them  as  synonymous.  This,  however,  is  not  the 
case;  these  words  do  not  mean  precisely  the  same  thing,  and  they 
Cannot  be  properly  applied  in  the  same  way.     We  never  say,  "  tlie 


lOb  APPENDIX. Tin:    ADJECTIVE.  III<       3 

masculine  sex,  Ihe  feminine  sex;"  nor  "the  male  gender,  the  fe- 
male gender."  In  strict  propriety  of  speech,  the  worilsex  can  be 
predicated  only  of  animated  being;  the  word  geniler,  only  of  the 
term  by  which  that  being  is  expressed.  The  being,  man,  has  sex, 
not  gender;  the  word,  man,  has  gender,  not  sex.  Though  there- 
fore it  is  very  absurd  to  speak  of  three  sexes,  yet  it  may  be  very 
proper  to  speak  of  three  genders;  that  is  to  say,  there  are  three 
classes  (genders,)  of  nouns,  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their 
relation  to  sex.  One  denotes  objects  of  the  male  sex,  and  is  call- 
ed moscwime;  another  denotes  objects  of  the  female  sex,  and  13 
called /e?rtirt.!7ie;  and  the  third  denotes  objects  neither  male  nor  fe- 
male, for  which  a  name  more  appropriate  than  the  term  neiUer, 
need  not  be  desired. 

The  term  "  Common  gender,"  applied  to  such  words  as  parent, 
child,  friend,  &,c.  does  not  constitute  a  distinct  class  of  words, 
which  are  neither  masculine,  nor  feminine,  nor  neuter,  but  is  used 
for  convenience,  merely  to  indicate  that  such  words  sometimes 
denote  a  male  and  sometimes  a  female.  Instead  of  "  common," 
those  who  prefer  it,  may  call  such  words  "masculine  or  feminine." 

3d.  Case — In  the  ancient  languages,  and  also  in  the  modern  lan- 
guages of  Europe,  nouns  in  each  number,  have  certain  changes  of 
termination  calleil  Cases,  which  serve  to  shew  the  relation  exist- 
ing between  them  and  other  words  in  the  sentence.  Of  these,  the 
Latin  has  six,  the  Greelf,  five,  the  German,  four,  the  Saxon,  six,  the 
French,  three,  &c.  In  English,  the  only  variation  of  the  noun  in 
each  number,  is  that  used  to  mark  possession,  and  for  this  reason, 
commonly  called  the  possessive  case.  The  nominative  and  ob- 
jective do  not  differ  in  form,  but  only  in  their  use,  the  former  be- 
ing used  to  denote  the  subject  of  a  verb,  and  the  latter  to  denote 
the  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition.  The  propriety  of  this  dis- 
tinction is  manifest,  from  the  fact,  that  in  personal  and  relative 
pronouns,  the  objective  case  is  distinguished  from  the  nominative 
by  a  change  of  form. 

3.  ADJECTIVE. 
Words  of  this  class  are  supposed  to  have  been  originally  nouns, 
the  names  of  qualities  or  attributes,  and  from  being  joined  to 
nouns  whose  quality  or  property  they  were  emi)loyed  to  express, 
were  called  adjective  nouns.  In  a  more  advanced  state  of  language 
with  few  exceptions  they  cease  to  be  used  as  nouns,  and  are  em 
ployed  to  denote  a  qualify,  property  or  attribute,  not  separately, 
but  in  conjunction  with  its  subject.  Thus;  when  we  say  "a 
stone"  we  have  the  generic  name  of  a  certain  substance  and  no 
more;  but  when  we  say,  "a  round  stone,"  ''  a  hard  stone,"  "a 
smooth  stone,"  we  have  the  generic  name,  limiteiland  described 
by  tlie  attributes  of  roundness,  hardness,  smoothness;  and  these 
as  inherent  in  or  belonging  to  the  substance  stone.  The  adjec- 
tive always  implies  the  name  of  a  quality  or  attribute,  but  does 
not  present   that   idea  alone  to   the   mind,  as   when   we  speak 


III.       3.  APPENDIX. THE    ADJECTIVE.  197 

of  roundness,  hardness,  &c.  but  that  idea  in  cxmcreto, — in  con- 
junction with  its  subject.  Hence  it  follows  that  a  word  which 
does  not  add  to  its  noun  the  idea  of  some  quality  or  attribute  as 
belonging  to  it  or  connected  with  it,  is  not  strictly  speaking  an  ad- 
jective, and  for  this  reason  the  articles,  and  the  words  generally 
ranked  as  distributive,  demonstrative,  and  indefinite  pronouns, 
though  adjectives-  in  consti-uction,  are  not  so  in  sense  and  mean- 
ing. They  express  no  quality,  property  or  attribute  of  a  noun, 
either  separately  or  in  connection  with  it,  nor  can  they  be  pre- 
dicated of  it.  On  the  other  hand  all  words  which  do  make  such 
an  addition  to  the  noun,  may  properly  be  regarded  as  adjectives, 
though  they  be  often  or  generally  used  for  other  purposes.  Thus 
the  words  "gold,"  "sea,"  "flower,"  are  nouns,  but  when  wc 
say  "  a  gold  watch,"  "sea  water,"  "a  flower  garden,"  they  arc 
used  as  adjectives. 

CojiPARisox. — Adjectives  denoting  qualities  or  properties  ca- 
pable of  increase,  and  so  of  existing  in  difTerent  degrees,  assume 
ditterent  forms  to  express  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  such  quality 
or  property  in  one  object  compared  with  another,  or  with  several 
others.  These  forms  are  three,  and  are  appropriately  denomi- 
nated the  positive,  comparative,  and  superlative.  Some  object  to 
the  positive  being  called  a  degree  of  comparison,  because  in  its 
ordinary  use  it  does  not,  like  the  comparative  and  superlative  forms, 
necessarily  involve  comparion.  And  they  think  it  more  i)liiloso- 
phical  to  say,  that  the  degrees  of  comparison  are  only  two,  the 
comparative  and  superlative.  This,  however,  with  the  appear- 
ance of  greater  exactness  is  little  else  than  a  change  of  words, 
and  a  cliange  perhaps  not  for  the  better.  If  we  define  a  degree 
of  compariron  'a  form  of  tlie  adjective  which  necessarily  im- 
plies comparison,"  this  change  would  be  just,  but  this  is  not  what 
grammarians  mean,  when  they  say  there  are  three  degress  of 
comparison.  Their  meaning  is  that  there  are  three  forms  of  the 
adjective,  each  of  which,  when  comparison  is  intentled,  exi)resses 
a  dilferent  degree  of  the  quality  or  attribute  in  the  things  com- 
pared:  Thus,  if  we  compare  wooil,  stone,  and  iron,  with  re- 
gard to  their  weight,  we  would  say  "  wootl  islteavij,  stone  heavier, 
and  iron  is  the  heaviest."  Each  of  these  forms  of  the  adjective 
in  this  comparison  expresses  a  dilTerent  degree  of  weight  in  the 
things  comparetl,  the  positive  heavy  exi>resses  one  degree,  the 
comparative  heavier,  .inother,  and  the  superlative /icflwesf,  a  thirtl, 
and  of  these  the  first  is  as  essential  an  element  in  the  comparison 
as  the  second,  or  the  third.  Indeed  there  never  can  be  compari- 
son without  the  statement  of  at  least  two  degrees,  and  of  these 
the  positive  form  of  the  adjective  either  expressed  or  implied, 
always  expresses  one.  When  we  say  "  wisdom  is  more  jirecious 
than  rubies,"  two  degrees  of  value  are  compared,  the  one  ex- 
pressed by  the  comparative,  "  more  precious,"  the  other  neces- 
sarily implied.  The  meaning  is  "  rubies  are  precious,  wisilom  is 
more  precious."     Though,  tlierefore,  it  is  true,  that  the  simple 


193  ArrtNDIX PROOUNS.  III.       4 

form  of  the  adjective  docs  not  always,  nor  even  commonly  de- 
note comparison,  yet  as  it  always  docs  indicate  one  of  the  de- 
grees compared  whcne\cr  comparison  exists,  it  seems  proper  to 
rank  it  with  the  other  forms,  as  a  degree  of  comparison.  This 
involves  no  impropriety,  it  produces  no  confusion,  it  leads  to  no 
error,  it  has  a  positive  foundation  in  the  nature  of  comparison, 
and  it  furnishes  an  appropriate  and  convenient  appellation  for  this 
form  of  the  adjective,  by  which  to  distinguish  it  in  speech  from 
the  other  forms. 

4.  PRONOUNS, 

The  term  pronoun  (Lat  pronomen)  strictly  means  a  word  used 
for,  or  instead  of  a  noun.  In  English,  Pronouns  are  usually  di- 
vided into  three  general  classes,  personal,  relative,  and  adjective. 
The  first  or  personal,  includes  also  compound  pronouns  which  in 
the  nominative  are  emphatic  or  definite,  anil  in  the  objective,  re- 
flexive, §  15.  2.  The  second  or  relative,  (except  ''that")  with- 
out any  change  of  [ormhecomes  interrogative  in  asking  questions, 
§  17.  All  the  words  in  these  two  classes  both  in  sense  and  con- 
struction are  used  as  nouns,  and  instead  of  nouns. 

The  third  class  called  adjective  pronouns,  and  sometimes  pro- 
nominal adjectives,  is  usually  subdivided  into  posseasive,  distri- 
butive, demonstrative,  and  indefinite.  Of  these  the  first  or  possess- 
ive are  derived  from  the  personal,  and  in  meaning  are  strictly 
pronouns,  being  always  the  representative  or  substitute  of  a  noun; 
but  in  construction  they  are  adjectives  and  are  always  joined  with 
a  noun,  and  hence  are  appropriately  denominated  adjective  pro- 
nouns, i.  e.  pronouns  used  adjectively.  By  some  they  are  less  ap- 
propriately classed  with  adjectives;  and  called  pronominal  adjec- 
tives. 

In  many  grammars  the  possessives  my,  thy,  his,  her,  its,  our, 
your,  their,  are  set  down  as  the  possessive  case  of  the  personal 
pronouns,  with  mine,  thine,  his.  Iters,  its,  ours,  yours,  theirs, 
making  two  forms  of  the  possessive  case,  thus;  my  or  mine,  thy 
or  thine,  &c.  In  the  usfe  of  these  forms  this  difference  is  to  be 
observed,  viz :  that  the  first  is  always  followed  by  a  noun  denot- 
ing the  thing  possessed;  as,  "this  is  my  book;"  the  latter  never 
has  the  noun  following  it,  but  seems  as  it  were  to  include  it,  as 
well  as  to  be  governed  by  it;  as,  "this  book  is  not  witju;;"' — equi- 
valent to  "  this  book  is  not  my  book."  The  possessive  case  of  the 
noun  is  used  both  ways;  as,  "this  is  John's  book,"  or,  "this 
book  is  John's."  Which  of  these  methods  is  adopted  in  teach- 
ing or  studying  grammar,  is  a  matter  of  no  practical  moment; 
some  grammarians  adopt  the  one  and  some  the  other,  merely  as 
a  matter  of  taste  without  any  controversy  on  the  subject.  The 
classification  in  the  text  is  preferred  as  being  on  the  whole  more 
simple, — because  the  possessives  ni}',  thy,  &c.  like  the  adjective, 
can  never  stand  alone,  as  the  possessive  case  does,  but  must  be 
supported  by  a  noun  following  them ;    Thus  we   say,  "It  is  the 


111.       4.  APPENDIX PRONOUNS.  199 

kind's,"  ''It  is  yours;"  but  we  cannot  say  "It  is  your,"  the  pre- 
sence of  a  noun  being  necessary  to  the  last  expression; — and  be- 
cause if  these  words  are  ranked  as  the  possessive  case  of  the  per- 
sonal pronoun,  it  unnecessarily  leaves  the  English  language  with- 
out a  class  of  words,  corresponding  to  the  possessive  pronouns  of 
other  languages.  They  have  i)recisely  the  same  meaning  as  the 
Latin  Mens,  mea,  meum-  or  the  French  Man,  ma,  or  the  Ger- 
man iWeirt,  (or  viciner)  meine,  mein;  or  the  Anglo-Saxon,  (which 
is  the  mother  of  the  English  language,)  Min,  mine,  min, — and 
they  are  used  in  precisely  the  same  way.  There  seems  therefore, 
to  be  no  good  reason  for  giving  them  a  different  classification. 
Indeed,  the  only  circumstance  which  renders  it  possible  to  regard 
them  as  a  possessive  case  in  English,  is  that  like  the  English  ad- 
jective the)'  are  indeclinable.  Had  they  been  declinable,  like 
the  Latin  or  French,  &,c.  they  never  could  have  been  used  as  a 
possessive  case.  The  theory  which  would  class  the  possessive 
mine,  thine,  hers,  yours,  &c.  as  the  nominative  or  objective,  be- 
cause we  can  say  for  example,  "  INIine  is  better  than  yours," 
seems  unworthy  of  a  moment's  notice. 

The  words  belonging  to  the  other  three  divisions,  have  been 
found  more  difficult  to  arrange  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  They 
seem  to  occupy  a  sort  of  middle  ground  between  adjectives  and 
pronouns,  and  are  sometimes  used  as  the  one,  and  sometimes  as 
the  other,  without  the  strict  and  appropriate  character  of  either. 
They  are  not  adjectives  in  sense  as  already  shewn.  App.  III.  2, 
but  they  are  generally  adjectives  in  construction,  having  a  noun 
expressed  or  understood,  which  they  serve  to  limit  or  restrict  in 
various  ways.  On  the  other  hand,  with  few  exceptions,  they  are 
80  often  used  without  a  noun,  or  as  its  substitute,  that  they  are  not 
improperly  regarded  as  pronovms,  though  in  a  sense  less  strict 
than  the  others.  Thus,  "  Let  cacA  esteem  others  better  than  them- 
selves." "  Among  men,  some  are  good,  others  bad,  none  perfect." 
'^  All  things  come  alike  to  all,"  &c. 

From  this  equivocal  or  i-ather  double  character  of  these  words, 
they  have  been  variously  arranged  by  difiTerent  authors.  Some, 
among  whom  are  Grant,  Crombie,  Hiley,  SutcliflTe,  Allen,  Coop- 
er, Brown,  &c.  class  them  with  adjectives,  and  call  them  "  Pro- 
nominal Adjectives ;''''  and  others,  such  as  Lowth,  Priestly,  Smart, 
Murray,  Lennie,  Booth,  Churchill,  Wright,  Cobbet,  Kirkham, 
Smith,  and  many  others,  class  them  with  pronouns,  and  call  them 
"  Adjective  Pronouns."  Since  all  are  agreed  about  the  use  of 
these  words,  it  seems  in  itself  a  matter  of  less  importance  to 
which  of  these  two  classes  they  be  attached,  or  whether  they  are 
more  appropriately  called  Pronominal  Adjectives  or  Adjective 
Pronmms.  But  as  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  and  in  most,ifnot  all 
Eurojiean  languages,  almost  all  of  the  corresponding  words 
are  ranked  uniformly  as  adjective  pronouns;  and  as  there  is  no 
necessity  for,  and  no  advantage  to  be  derived  from  a  diflerent 
classification,  it  seems  to  be  unwise,  merely  for  the  sake  of  change 


200  APPENDIX. TUi      VERB.  IIL       6. 

or  the  love  of  singularity,  to  depart  from  this  arrangemeat  in 
English. 

6.  THE  VERB. 

1.  Definition The  proper  definition  of  this  part  of  speech, 

its  division  into  classes,  and  the  distribution,  arrangement,  and 
nomenclature  of  its  different  parts,  g-ranimarians  have  found  to  be 
a  task  of  no  small  difficulty,  and  their  endeavors  to  execute  it 
have  not  always  proved  satisfactory  cither  to  themselves  or  others. 
Of  the  many  ilcfinitions  and  classifications  that  have  been  proposed, 
none  are  entirely  free  from  objections;  and  the  same  variety  that 
occurs  on  this  subject  in  English  grammars,  is  found  also  in  the 
grammars  of  foreign  languages.  As  a  definition,  I  have  met  with 
nothing  more  brief  and  accurate  than  that  given  in  the  text. 

2.  Murray's  Division. — The  classification  of  verbs  has  been 
and  still  is  a  vexed  question.  In  accordance  with  his  definition, 
Murray  has  divided  verbs  into  three  classes,  Active,  Passive,  and 
Neuter,  and  includes  in  the  first  class  transitive  verbs  only,  and  in 
the  last  all  verbs  used  intransitively.  To  this  classification  it  is 
objected.  1st.  That  it  makes  active  and  passive  two  different 
classes,  whereas  they  constitute  properly  but  one  class,  under  two 
different  forms.  Active  and  passive  are  in  fact  but  different  forms 
or  parts  of  one  and  the  same  verb,  and  consequently  must  be  re- 
garded as  belonging  to  one  class.  §  21  Obs.  1. — 2d.  It  confines 
the  use  of  tlie  term  "  transitive"  to  the  active  voice,  whereas  verbs 
in  the  passive  form  are  as  really  transitive  as  in  the  active  form. 
§  21,  as  above.  3d.  If  this  inaccuracy  be  corrected  by  referring 
all  transitive  verbs,  whether  active  or  passive  in  form  to  one  class, 
the  term  "  Neuter"  (neither  of  the  two)  will  be  inappropriate  as 
a  designation  for  the  class  to  which  it  is  now  applied. 

3.  KiRKHAiM's  Division. — The  division  of  Murray,  however, 
is  better  than  that  of  Kirkham,  Smith,  and  some  others,  -who 
agree  with  Murray,  in  dividing  verbs  into  active,  passive,  and 
neuter,  but  differ  from  him  in  ranlcing  what  they  call  intransitive 
verbs,  under  the  general  head  of  active  verbs,  and  designating 
by  the  term  "neuter",  those  verbs  only  which  are  supposed  not  to 
denote  action  at  all,  but  only  being  in  a  certain  state,  and  that  of 
course  not  a  state  of  action.  This  division  is  liable  to  all  the  ob- 
jections that  lie  against  the  division  of  Murray,  and  to  others 
still  more  serious,  as; 

1st.  It  creates  a  distinction  between  intransitive  and  neuter 
verbs,  which  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  make,  and  when  made, 
whether  correctlj'  or  not,  is  of  no  use  whatever  in  grammar,  as 
those  verbs  called  intransitive,  and  those  called  neuter,  in  construc- 
tion, are  always  used  in  precisely  the  same  way, — they  neither 
liave  nor  need  a  regimen. 

2d.  It  unites  in  one  class  in  Etymology,  words  which  must  be 
distinguished  in  Syntax, namely,  transitive  and  intransitive  verbs, 
the  former  of  which,  in  the  active  voice,  always  have  a  regimen. 


HI.       5.  APPENDIX. THE     VERB.  201 

ani]  the  latter  never,  but  are  used  in  the  same  way  as  neuter  verbs. 
Whenever  an  intransitive  verb  lakes  a  reg-imen,  it  thereby  be- 
comes transitive,  and  should  be  so  denominated. 

3d.  By  confining  the  term  neuter  to  verbs  which  do  not  ex- 
press action,  whenever,  in  construction,  verbs  of  this  class  are  used 
transitively,  as  oCten  happens,  we  are  led  to  regard  as  active  a 
verb,  whose  characteristic  is  that  it  expresses  no  action  whatever. 
For  example;  when  we  say  of  a  person,  "He  lived  and  died  in 
peace  with  all  men,"  "lived"  and  "died  are  both  neuter  verbs,  i.e. 
they  express  neither  action  nor  passion.  But  when  we  say,  "  he 
lived  the  life  and  died  the  death  of  the  righteous,"  they  both  be- 
ome  active  and  transitive  verbs,  and  yet  neither  of  them  express 
any  more  action  in  this  case  than  they  did  in  the  other. 

4.  Brown's  Divisiox. — Mr.  Brown,  and  some  others  with  him 
divide  verbs  into  four  classes.  Active-transitive,  Active-intransi- 
tive, Passive,  and  Neuter.  This  differs  from  the  preceding  only 
in  dividing  the  active  verbs  of  that  division  into  two  classes,  ac 
tive-transitive,  and  active-intransitive — a  distinction  also  made  in 
the  other  case  in  the  form  of  an  observation.  It  is  of  course  lia- 
ble to  nearly  the  same  objections.  This  four-fold  division  is 
faulty  in  the  following  respects.  1st.  The  first  and  third  proper- 
ly constitute  but  one  class,  as  they  both  express  transitive  action, 
and  differ  only  in  form,  the  one  bemg  in  the  active  voice  and  the 
other  in  the  passive.  2d.  In  a  four-fold  division  of  verbs,  the 
term  "neuter"  (neither  of  the  two)  as  a  designation  of  one  class 
has  no  appropriate  meaning.  3d.  The  second  and  fourth  divi- 
sions should  be  classed  under  one  head,  as  they  are  both  intransi- 
tive, and  are  used  in  the  construction  of  sentences  in  precisely 
the  same  way. 

5.  It  has  been  already  noticed  that  verbs  usually  neuter  and  in- 
transitive, are  sometimes  used  transitively.  In  such  cases,  they 
should  be  denominated  transitive  verbs.  In  like  manner,  transi- 
tive verbs  are  sometimes  used  intransitively.  When  we  say  of  a 
person  that  " he  reads,  writes,  and  converses  well,  labors  dili- 
gently, lives  happily,  and  sleeps  soundly,"  we  have  six  verbs,  of 
which  the  first  two  are  in  sense,  active-transitive  verbs,  because  a 
person  cannot  read  or  write  without  reading  or  writing  something, 
and  yet  it  is  manifest  there  is  nothing  active  or  transitive  intended 
to  be  expressed;  the  whole  idea  conveyed  by  these  words  in  this 
sentence,  is  simply  "he  is  a  good  reader  and  a  good  writer." 
"  Reads,"  and  writes,"  here,  are  just  as  intransitive  as  "  conver- 
ses," or  "  labors,"  or  "  sleeps" — in  fact,  that  all  the  six  verbs  are 
used  in  a  manner  precisely  alike,  to  express  certain  habits,  capa- 
cities, or  states,  of  the  subject  "  he."  It  is  manifest,  therefore, 
that  in  parsing  such  a  sentence,  "  reads"  and  "  writes"  should  be 
described  as  transitive  verbs  used  intransitively,  or  more  simply 
as  intransitives.  From  all  these  facts  taken  together,  I  think  the 
following  positions  are  fully  warranted,  viz : 

1st.  That  the  presence  or  the  absence  of  action,  simply  consi- 


202       APPENDIX. nilAMMATICAL    NOMENCLATURE.       IV. 

(Icred,  (Ions  rot  rorm  a  i)ropor  characfciistic  for  a  useful  clasRifi- 
cation  of  verbs. 

2d.  That  the  only  distribution  of  verbs  of  any  utility,  in  Syntax, 
is  that  -vvliich  is  founded,  (not  on  the  intrinsic  meaning'  of  the 
woni,  but)  on  the  use  made  of  it  in  the  construction  of  a  sentence. 

6  The  classification  in  the  text,  is  founded  on  this  principle, 
and  while  it  avoids  most  of  the  objections  to  the  classifications  al- 
ready mentioned,  it  has  also  the  following  advantag-es: 

1st.  It  divides  all  verbs  into  two  classes,  Transitive  and  Intran- 
sitive, disting-uishcd  by  a  clear  and  definite  characteristic,  derived 
from  their  use  in  the  construction  of  sentences.  To  the  first,  be- 
long' those  which  are  used  transitively,  whatever  be  their  mean- 
ing or  form;  and  to  the  second  all  that  are  used  intransitively, 
wliether  they  denote  action  or  not.     §19. 

2d.  This  arrangement  and  nomenclature,  leaves  the  terms  Ac- 
tive and  Passive,  at  liberty  to  be  applied  exclusively  to  the  two 
fi)rms  which  all  transitive  verbs  assume,  called  the  active  and  pas- 
sive voice. 

3d.  It  dispenses  with  the  term  neuter  altogether,  as  applied  to 
verbs,  and  leaves  it  to  be  appropriated  in  grammar  to  the  desig- 
nation of  gender  only. 

This  classification  of  the  verb  has  been  adopted  in  the  best 
grammars  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  and  in  some  resjiecta- 
ble  English  grammars  lately  published;  it  is  advocated  by  Mr. 
Webster,  in  his  dissertations  on  the  English  language; — is  adopted 
in  his  English  Grammar,  and  dictionary;  and  from  its  greater 
simplicity,  accuracy,  and  utility,  appears  likely  to  prevail. 

7.  Moods  and  Tenses. — In  the  observations  on  the  Moods  and 
Tenses  in  their  proper  place,  all  has  been  said  that  seems  to  be 
necessary. 

IV.     GRAMMATICAL  NOMENCLATURE. 

Evert  science,  and  every  art,  has  its  particular  nomenclature, 
or  vocabulary  of  technical  terms,  wliich  are  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  expressing  technically,  its  leading  materials,  facts,  princi- 
ples, divisions,  &c.  These  terms  are  generally  derived  from  the 
Greek  or  Latin,  probably  because  these  languages  being  now 
dead,  and  their  words  consequently  not  liable  to  change,  are  con- 
sidered, for  this  reason,  a  better  source  than  any  other,  for  words 
of  this  description.  The  convenience  and  utility  of  such  terms, 
are  universally  acknowledged,  and  they  are  preferred  to  other 
equivalent  terms  in  common  use  in  the  language,  because  having 
no  other  meaning  nor  use  than  what  belongs  to  them  as  technical 
terms,  whenever  they  are  used,  every  person  who  understands  the 
science,  knows  precisely  what  is  meant.  The  fact  of  their  being 
of  foreign  origin — of  fixed  and  determinate  signification,  and  not 
employed  in  the  language  to  denote  any  thing  else,  is  not  only  no 
objection  to  their  use,  but  is  in  reality  a  decided  advantage.   A  se- 


IV.       APPENDIX. GRAMMATICAL    NOMENCLATURE.       203 

rious  proposal  to  abandon,  in  Chemistry  for  example,  such  terms 
as  gas,  acid,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  &c.  and  to  substitute  their  English 
equivalents  air,  sour,  sour-making,  water -maldng,  and  the  like, 
would  be  considered  not  only  injurious,  but  ridiculous.  And  yet 
this  very  thing,  some  men  are  attempting-  to  do,  in  the  science  of 
grammar,  and  urging  it  as  a  great  improvement.  They  have  such 
an  aversion  to  the  "dead  languages, '-■  and  evciy  thing  "  foreign," 
and  are  so  much  afraid  of  the  "genius  of  the  English  language," 
being  contaminated  by  such  connections,  that  they  are  actually 
urging  us  to  abandon  such  terms  in  grammar,  as  Noun,  Pronoun, 
Adjective,  Verb,  &c.  and  to  use  in  their  stead,  such  words  as 
name,  substitute,  describer,  asserter,  and  the  like,  because  as  is 
alleged,  they  possess  more  of  tlie  cliaracter  of  English  words, — 
i.  e.  the}'  propose  to  abandon  the  peculiar  and  appropriate  technical 
terms  of  the  science,  and  to  employ  words  in  a  great  measure  dis- 
qualified for  this  purpose,  by  the  very  fact  of  their  being  already 
used  for  other  purposes.  In  order  to  illustrate  this,  take  a  single 
example.  When  we  use  the  word  "Noun,"  every  one  knows 
that  we  speak  of  a  class  of  words  so  denominated  in  grammar,  be- 
cause the  term  has  no  other  meaning.  But  if  instead  of  the  term 
noun,  we  use  the  word  name,  this  precision  and  clearness  is  im- 
mediately lost,  because  this  word  being  applied  to  other  things, 
is  less  definite  in  its  meaning. 

"  Ambiguam  tellure  nova  Salamiaa  futuram.' 
To  put  this  matter  to  the  test  of  experiment,  let  any  one  ask  a 
boy  acquainted  with  grammar,  "What  is  a  Noun?"  and  he  will 
answer  at  once,  and  correctly,  bj'  giving  its  definition  in  grammar, 
"A  noun  is  the  name  of  a  thing."  "  But  if  instead  of  this  you 
ask  him,  "What  is  a  name?"  unless  he  know  beforehand  that  you 
mean  name  in  a  grammatical  sense,  he  will  probably  be  at  a  loss 
for  an  answer;  and  on  referring  to  Johnson  or  Walker,  (who  ne- 
ver heard  of  the  term  "name"  applied  in  this  way,)  he  will  find 
it  lias,  according  to  them,  nine  diflerent  shades  of  meaning,  and  no 
one  of  tliese  would  be  a  correct  answer  to  the  question  proposed. 
[f  in  this  way,  we  should  go  through  the  whole  nomenclature  of 
grammar,  and  instead  of  the  technical  terms  now  in  use,  and  well 
understood,  we  should  employ  a  translation  of  them,  or  their 
equivalent  in  English  words  in  common  use,  it  would  be  manifest 
that  by  such  a  change,  the  whole  science  would  at  once  become 
vague  and  unintelligible — a  mass  of  confusion.  For  these  rea- 
sons, I  think  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  in  grammar,  as  well  as 
in  other  sciences,  technical  terms  appropriate  in  themselves,  hav- 
ing but  one  specific  meaning,  and  that  accurately  defined,  are  much 
more  convenient  and  useful,  both  for  teacher  and  pupil,  than  any 
other  terms  can  be ;  and  that  every  attempt  to  simplify  grammar 
by  substituting  words  in  common  use  in  the  English  language,  for 
the  technical  terms  now  employeil,  or  others  of  similar  charac- 
ter, will  tend  only  to  greater  obscurity  and  difficulty. 


204 


APPENDIX. GLOSS  ART. 


V.  GLOSSARY  OF  GRAMMATICAL  TERMS. 


Accent,  [Lat.  acccntun  from  ac- 
ciiw,  acccntum,  ad.  anil  caru),  to 
sing  to,]  stress  of  voice  laid 
on  a  particular  syllable. 

Accident,  [Lat.  accido,  to  fall 
to,  to  happen,  ad  and  cado,] 
something  that  falls  to,  i.  e. 
belongs  to  a  word,  but  not  es- 
sential to  it;  as  person,  gen- 
der, number,  case,  compari- 
son, mood,  tense,  he. 

Active,  [Lat.  activns,  active 
from  ago,  to  act,]  denotes  a 
form  of  the  verb,  the  subject 
of  which  acts,  or  is  active.  In 
many  grammars,  a  class  of 
verbs  which  express  action. 

Adjective,  [Lat.  Adjectivus,a.d- 
ded,  joined  to,  from  adjicio,  i. 
e.  ad,  to,  andjocto,  to  lay,  put, 
&c.]  the  designation  of  a  class 
of  words.    See  definition,  §13. 

Adverb,  [Lat.  from  ad,  to,  and 
verbum,  a  word,  the  verb,  i. 
e.  added  or  joined  to  a  verb,] 
a  class  of  words.  See  defini- 
tion, §33. 

Allegory,  [Gr.  d'\'Xr]yoma,  from 
dWnyopit'y,  to  intrepret  differ- 
ently from  what  the  words 
seem  to  imply,  from  aWn^,  and 
ayoplw,  to  speak  in  public,  Th. 
ayopn,  a  forum  or  public  place,] 
a  figure  of  speech.  See  def. 
§94. 

Antithesis,  [Gr.  ivriOtaa,  op- 
position, contrast,  from  avn, 
opposite,  and  riO;),.(,  to  place; 
hence  to  place  opposite  or  in 
contrast,]  a  figure  of  speech. 
See  def.  §94. 

Apostrophe,  [Gr.  aTroaTp-ipiT, 
turning  away,  viz :  from  the 
subject  of  discoure  to  another 
object,  a-6,  from,  and  <Trpiipi,<, 
to  turn,]  a  figure  of  speech. 
See  def.  §94. 


Apposition,  [Lat.  appositut, 
placed  near  or  together,]  a 
noun  placed  near,  or  by  ano- 
ther, in  the  same  construction, 
for  the  purpose  of  further  de- 
fining it,  is  said  to  be  in  appo- 
sition; as  "  Cicero,  the  Ora- 
tor," 

Article,  [Lat. -4r<ic«Z«*, a  joint, 
from  artus,  alimb,]one  of  the 
parts  of  speech.  See  def.  §4; 
and  for  the  reason  of  the  name, 
App.  Ill,  1. 

Auxiliary,  [Lat.  auxiliaris, 
helping,  from  auxilium,  aid,] 
a  designation  of  certain  verbs. 
§20. 

Case,  [Lat.  Casus,  from  cado, — 
casum,  to  fall;]  hence  the 
particular  circumstances  into 
which  a  person  or  thing  falls, 
or  happens  to  be,  is  called  his, 
or  its  case.  So  a  noun  in  cer- 
tain circumstances,  is  in  one 
case,  in  different  circumstan- 
ces it  is  in  another  case.  See 
def.  §11. 

Climax,  [Gr.  K>!fin^,  a  scale  or 
ladder,]  a  figure  in  rhetoric, 
by  which  the  sense  of  the  ex- 
pressions rises  gradually  in 
strength,  from  step  to  step. 
See  def.  §94. 

Colon,  [Gr.  kvSXnr,  a  member  or 
limb;  hence  in  grammar,  a 
member  or  part  of  a  sentence,] 
a  mark  (:)  by  which  a  mem- 
ber of  a  sentence  is  indicated. 

Comma,  [Gr.  KOfitm,  a  segment, 
from  .lirrroi,  to  cut  off,]  a  mark 
(,)  indicating  the  smallest  seg- 
ment or  division  of  a  sentence. 

Comparative,  [Lat.  from  com- 
pare, to  compare,]  a  form  of 
the  adjective,  expressing  a 
greater  or  less  degree  than  the 
positive. 


APPENDIX. GLOSSART. 


Concord,  [Lat  concors,  agree- 
ing; Concordia,  agreement,]  a 
term  in  Syntax  denoting  the 
agreement  of  worils  in  certain 
accidents.     See  def.  §4.t. 

Conjugation,  [Lat.  conjugatio, 
from  con,  together,  and  jugo, 
to  yoke  or  join,  ]  arranging  and 
joining  the  different  parts  of  a 
verb  together  in  their  proper 
order. 

Conjunction,  [Lat.  conjunctio, 
from  con,  together,  and  jungo, 
to  join,]  a  word  whose  use  is 
to  join  together.    See  def.  §36. 

Consonant,  [Lat.  consonans, 
sounding  together,  con  and  so- 
no,]  a  letter  sounded  not  alone, 
but  together  with  a  vowel. 

Copula,  [Lat.  copula,  a  band  or 
tie,]  that  by  which  the  isubject 
and  predicate  of  a  proposition 
are  coupled  together;  some- 
times a  separate  woril,  as  am, 
is,  arc,  &c.  and  sometimes  im- 
plied in  the  predicate  itself, 
as  I  write,  i.  e.  I  am  writing. 

Declension,  [Lat.  declinatio, 
from  declino,  to  decline,]  de- 
clining or  changing  the  ter- 
mination of  nouns,  &c.  so  as 
to  form  the  oblique  cases. 

Declinable,  [I^at.  from  the 
same,]  that  may  be  declined  or 
changed  in  termination. 

Demonstrative,  [Lat.  from </e- 
monstro,  to  point  out,or  shew,] 
a  word  that  indicates  or  points 
out  clearly,  as  this  man,  that 
book,  &C. 

DiiERESis,  [Gr.  ('caioenur,  a  divi- 
sion, fidi  and  alpco',']  a  mark 
(■■  )  over  the  last'of  two  vow- 
els, shewing  they  are  to  be 
divided  in  pronunciation,  as 
aerial,  a-erial. 

Diphthong,  [Gr.  SiipOnyyof,  a 
double  sound,  from  Jij,  twice, 
and  <pd6yyos,  a  sound,]  the  un- 


ion of  two  vowel  sounds  in 
one  syllable. 

Dissyllable,  [Gr.  li(rav\\agft, 
dU,  twice,  and  (ri'XXa6ri,]a  word 
of  two  syllables.  See  Syllable. 

Distributive,  [Lat.  distributi- 
I'us,  from  diatrihuo,  to  distri- 
bute or  tlivide,]  a  word  that 
liistribulcs  or  ilivides;  as  each, 
every,  &c.  shewing  the  indi- 
viduals of  a  collective  number 
as  taken  separately. 

Ellipsis, [Gr.  cA>£(<iif,omission, 
leaving  out,  cu,  and  Xfi'-o,  to 
leave,]  a  figure  by  which  a 
word  or  words  are  omitted, 
which  belong  to  the  full  gram- 
matical construction  of  a  sen- 
tence.    See  def.  §94. 

EjMi'iiAsis,  [Gr.  t'xtpiiati,  ii',  and 
0.1(7.  c,  a  charge,  a  shewing,] 
stress  or  force  laid  on  a  cer- 
tain word  or  part  of  a  sentence, 
skewing  or  making  it  con- 
spicuous. 

Etymology,  [Gr.  trvfioXoyla, 
from  iTv^n\oyio),  to  derive  a 
word  from  its  original,  and 
thus  to  discover  its  true  mean- 
ing— £Ti.//n)',  true,  and  \iyoi,  to 
tell,]  the  derivation  of  words. 
Also,  that  part  or  division  in 
grammar,  which  treats  of  their 
formation,  inflections,  and 
modifications. 

Feminine,  [Lat.  femininus, 
from  femiiia,  a  woman,]  the 
name  of  the  gender  of  words 
denoting  females 

Future,  [Lat.  Futurus,  about  to 
be,]  the  name  of  a  tense  de- 
noting time  yet  to  come. 

Future-Perfect,  [Lat.  Futu- 
rum-perfectum,]  a  tense  deno- 
ting an  act  or  event  completed 
at  some  future  time. 

Gender,  [Lat.  genus,  Fr.  genr*, 
kind,  or  class.]  See  def.  §7» 
and  App.  lit.  2,  2d. 


206 


APPENDIX GLOSSARY. 


GrAMMAB,  [Gr.  ypa/i/ianVr;,  from 
ypa/i,/a,  a  letter,  a  writing,  and 
that  from  y«  i^M,  to  write.  Fr. 
grammaire,]  the  science  of 
letters  or  language.  See  ilef. 
p.  1,  and  App.  I,  p.  189. 

Hyperbole,  [Greek,  vncoBo'Sr, 
throwing  over  or  beyond, 
hence  excess,  exaggeration, 
vTrcp,  over,  and  GiXsw,  to 
throw,]  a  figure  of  speech,  de- 
fined §94. 

Imperfect,  [Lat.  Imperfectum, 
not  completed,]  a  tense  pro- 
perly denoting  an  act,  &.c.  not 
completed  at  a  certain  past 
time.     §23,  2  and  24,  II. 

Indicative,  [Lat.  indico, — arc, 
to  declare,]  a  mood  or  form 
of  the  verb  which  simply  de- 
clares.    See  def.  §22. 

Infinitive,  [Lat.  in,  negative, 
snAJinitus,  limited  or  bound- 
ed,] a  mood  of  the  verb  not 
limited  by  person  or  number. 
§22,  5,  and  Obs.  4. 

Interjection,  [Lat.  Inter jedio, 
from  inter,  betvveen,or  among, 
and  jacio,  to  throw,]  a  word 
or  phrase  having  no  gram- 
matical connection  with  a  sen- 
tence, but  as  it  were  thrown 
into  it,  to  express  some  sudden 
emotion  of  the  mind. 

Intransitive,  [Lat.  in,  nega- 
tive, and  irartstfiyus,] not  pass- 
ing over.     See  "  Transitive." 

Irony,  [Gr.  lipwi'iia,  from  iiouii', 
a  dissembler,]  a  figure  of 
speech.     See  def.  §94. 

Masculine,  [Lat.  from  mas,  a 
male,]  the  gender  of  nouns 
and  pronouns  which  designate 
males. 

Metaphor,  [Gr.  ficratbona,  from 
fiera^epo),  to  transfer,]  a  word 
expressing  similitude  with- 
out the  signs  of  comparison, 
by  which  the  property  of  one 


object  is,asit  wcre,transferrcd 
to  another,  thus  when  we  say, 
'♦that  man  is  a  fox,''  the 
meaning  is,  "  that  man  is  like 
a  fox ;"  the  figure  transfers  tlie 
leading  property  of  the  fox,  to 
the  man.     bee  ilef.  §94. 

Metonymy,  [Gr.  ficroivvftia,  a 
change  of  name;  from  /ifni, 
denoting  cliange,  and  u^ofin,  a 
name,]  a  figure  by  which  one 
word  is  put  for  another.  See 
def.  §94. 

Metre,  [Gr.  from  uirnw,  a  mea- 
sure,] a  composition,  the  lines 
of  which  contain  a  certain 
measure  of  long  and  short  syl- 
lables, arranged  according  to 
rule.     See  def.  §93. 

Monosyllable,  [Gr.  from  fidrof, 
only,  or  one,  and  o-uAXuSi';,  a 
syllable,]  a  word  of  one  syl- 
lable.    See  Syllable. 

Mood  or  Mode,  [Lat.  modus, 
manner,]  a  form  of  the  verb 
expressing  its  meaning  in  a 
certain  manner.     See  def.  §22. 

Neuter,  [Lat.  neuter,  neither,] 
an  epithet  given  to  nouns 
which  are  neither  masculine 
nor  feminine.  Also,  in  some 
grammars,  to  verbs  denoting 
being  or  a  state  of  being. 

Nominative  (case,)  [Lat.  7M>mi- 
nativus,  homnomino,  to  name,] 
the  first  case  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun, or  that  used  when  a  per- 
son or  thing  is  simply  named. 

Noun,  [Lat.  nomcn  a  name,]  a 
word  that  is  the  name  of  an 
object,  is  in  grammar  called 
a  Noun.     See  def.  §  6. 

Objective  (case,)  [Lat.  ohjec- 
tivus  from  ob  and  jacio,  to 
throw  to,  against,  or  in  the 
way  of,]  the  case  of  a  noun 
or  pronoun  which  denotes  the 
object  of  a  transitlTe  verb,  or 
preposition. 


V. 


APPEODIX. GLOSSAnV. 


207 


Orthography,  [Gr.  6peoypa<pia, 
from  dpdos,  right,  and  ypa^/'i 
writing,]  writing  words  cor- 
rectly, i.  e.  with  the  proper 
letters. 

PARALEPSIS,  [Gr.  7rapaA»-n//if, 
omission,  from  vapa,  and  \dz<xi, 
to  leave,]  a  figure  of  speech, 
§  94. 

Parenthesis,  [Gr.  irapivQcaiq, 
from  TTupa  and  ivridrif^i,  to  in- 
sert,] a  word,  phrase,  or  sen- 
tence iTisertedin  a  sentence  for 
explanation,  but  not  connect- 
ed with  it  in  construction,  and 
therefore,  usually  distinguised 
by  a  mark  at  the  beginning  and 
end,    thus  (    ). 

Parse,  [Derivation  uncertain,] 
to  resolve  a  sentence  into  its 
elements,  or  parts  of  speech. 
§38. 

Participle,  [Lat.  participium, 
from  pars,  a  part,  and  capio 
to  take,]  a  part  of  the  verb 
which  partakes  of  the  verb 
and  the  adjective,  having  its 
signification  and  time  from  the 
former,  and  declension  and 
construction  from  the  latter. 

Passive  (voice,)  [Lat.  Passi- 
vus,  from  patior  to  suffer,  or 
to  be  affected  in  any  way,]  a 
form  of  the  verb  which  indi- 
cates that  its  subject  or  nomi- 
native receives,  or  is  affected 
by  the  action  expressed  by  the 
verb.     §21. 

Perfect,  [Lat.  Perfedum,  from 
perjicio,  to  perfect  or  com- 
plete,] a  tense  of  the  verb, 
denoting  that  the  action  or 
state  expressed  by  it  is  now 
completed  or  past.  See  def.  § 
23,  4,  and  §  24,  III. 

Period,  [Gr.  n-tpio^os,  a  circuit, 
from  TTcpt,  round  and  Wd$,  a 
way,]  a  complete  sentence, 
one  which  has  its  construction 


completed,  or  brought  round. 

Personification,  [Lat.  from 
persona  a  person,  and/ocio,  to 
make,]  a  figure,  by  which 
inanimate  objects  are  regarded 
as  persons,  or  as  it  were,  made 
so.     See  def.  §  94. 

Pluperfect,  [Lat.  plus  quam 
perfedum,  more  than  perfected 
or  completed,  i.  e.  completed 
before  a  certain  time  now 
past,]  the  designation  of  a 
tense  defined.  §  23,  4,  and 
24,  4. 

Polysyllable,  [Gr.  from  rroXif, 
many,  and  nvWaSfi,  a  syllable,] 
a  word  of  many  syllables. 
See  Syllable. 

Potential,  [Lat.  poteniialis,  be- 
longing to  power  or  ability, 
from  patens,  able,]  the  desig- 
nation of  a  certain  mood  of 
the  verb  defined,  §  22,  2. 

Predicate,  [Lat.  prcedicatus, 
from  prcedico,  to  assert,  or  de- 
clare,] that  part  of  a  proposi- 
tion which  contains  what  is 
affirmed  or  asserted  of  its  sub- 
ject, §  43. 

Preposition,  [Lat.  prcepositiOf 
from  propositus,  placed  be- 
fore,] a  class  of  words  so 
called,  because  their  position 
in  a  sentence  is  before  the  word 
governed  by  them.  See  def. 
§35, 

Pronoun,  [Lat.  pronomen,  from 
pro,  for,  i.  e.  instead  of,  and 
nomen,  a  name  or  noun,]  a 
word  used  for,  or  instead  of  a 
noun. 

Proposition,  [Lat.  propositio, 
from  pro,  before,  and  positus, 
placeil,]  a  simple  sentence,  in 
which  a  distinct  idea  is  pro- 
posed, or  set  before  the  mind. 

Prosody,  [Gr.  T:poaoiSia,  from 
T!p6iy  with  or  belonging  to,' 
and   (hit],  an   ode,]   anciently^ 


20S 


AVPENDIX. GLOSSARY. 


V. 


the  doctrine  of  accents  and 
quantity,  &c.     See  p.  1G3. 

PROSOPOPEIA,    [Gr.    TTiioaio-rruTTuiia, 

from  irpotKOTTov,  a  person,  and 
TToicM,  to  make,]  the  Greek 
term       for      Personification. 

Semicolon,  [Lat.  f>emi  half, 
and  Gr.  colon,]  a  point  (  ;), 
denoting'  a  division  of  a  sen- 
tence less  than  a  colon. 

Simile,  [Lat.  simile,  like,]  a  fi- 
gure of  speech,  by  which  one 
thing  is  compared  or  likened 
to  another.     §  94. 

Solecism,  [Gr.  aoXotKt/riuk,  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  Solii, 
the  name  of  a  people  in  Cili- 
cia,  who  spoke  the  Greek  lan- 
guage very  ungrammatically,] 
a  gross  violation  of  the  idiom, 
or  Syntax  of  a  language. 

Subject,  [Lat.  subjectus,  from 
subjicio,  to  place  before  or  un- 
der, (the  view,)]  in  a  propo- 
sition, the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of. 

Subjunctive  (mood,)  [Lat.  sub- 
junctivus,  from  subjungo,  to 
subjoin  or  annex  to,]  a  mood 
of  the  verb  never  used  inde- 
pendently, and  by  itself,  but 
subjoined  or  annexed  to  the 
main  or  leading  verb  in  a  sen- 
tence. See  §  22,  3,  and  06s.  2. 

Substantive,  [Lat.  Substanti- 
vm,  froms«6sfa7i<ia,substance] 
the  same  as  noun,  viz.  a  class 
of  words  denoting  things  that 
have  substance,  or  existence, 
material  or  immaterial. 

Superlative,  [Lat.  superlati- 
vus,  from  super,  above,  and 
lotus,  carried  i.  e.  carried 
above,  viz.  other  things,]  a 
form  of  the  adjective,  expres- 
ing  a  degree  of  the  quality 
carried  above,  or  superior  to 
that  in  any  of  several  objects 
compared. 


Syllable,  [Gr.  axi^^aSh,  from 
aoti  together,  and  A-z/ifiii-o),  to 
take,]  a  letter  or  number  of 
letters  taken  together,  and  form- 
ing one  vocal  sound,  §  1. 

Synecdoche,  [Gr.  owcKoo^ri, 
from  oil',  and  £«-Jc;^'o//ai,  to 
take,]  a  figure  of  speech  de- 
fined, §  94. 

Syntax,  [Gr.  o-rrra^f,  from  aiv 
together,  and  raaa,}  to  j)ut  in 
order]  the  proper  arrange- 
ment or  putting  together  of 
words  in  a  sentence. 

Tense,  [Lat.  tempus,  time,  Fr. 
terns,]  a  form  of  the  verb  by 
which  the  time  of  an  act,  &c. 
is  indicated. 

Transitive,  [Lat.  tran>ntivu.i, 
from  transeo,  to  go  or  pass 
over,]  the  name  of  a  class  of 
verbs,  which  express  an  act 
that  pauses  over  from  an  agent 
to  an  object,  §  19,  3. 

Triphthong,  [Gr.  from  rpcXi, 
three,  and  ,p9.iyy /?,  a  sound,] 
the  union  of  three  vowels  in 
one  sound. 

Trissyllable,  [Gr.  rorr?,  three, 
and  (T<'\).a6h,  a  syllable,]  a  word 
of  three  syllables. 

Verb,  [Lat.  verbum,  a  word,] 
the  name  of  a  class  of  words 
which  being  the  chief  or  most 
important  in  a  sentence,  were 
called  verbum,  the  word,  viz. 
by  way  of  eminence. 

Verse,  [Lat.  rersus,  from  werto, 
to  turn,]  a  species  of  compo- 
sition, in  which  every  line  is 
measured,  so  as  to  contain  a 
certain  number  of  feet,  at  the 
end  of  which  the  writer  turns 
to  a  new  line. 

Vowel,  [Lat.  vocalis,  from  vox, 
the  voice,]  a  letter  which 
marks  a  distinct  and  indepen- 
dent soimd,  without  the  aid  of 
other  letters. 


VI.       APPENDIX. FREXCH    WORDS    AND    PHEASES  209 

VI.    FRENCH  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

The  following  French  words  and  phrases,  arc  often  met  with  in 
English  writers.  They  are  here  explained  for  the  henefit  of  those 
unacquainted  with  the  French  language.  In  the  following  repre- 
sentation of  French  sounds,  a  has  tlie  sound  of  a  in  hat ; — a  of  a  in 
Lade ; — a  of  a  in  fall  ; — e  of  e  in  her,  e  of  e  in  bed ; — i  of  i  in  sit ;— 6 
of  0  in  hot,  6  of  o  in  hone  ; — u  of  w  in  cur  ;  oo  of  oo  in  coo.  The 
French  w,  and  eu,  and  oeu,  have  no  corresponding  sounds  in  the 
English  language,  nor  can  they  be  represented  by  letters  ;  the  first 
is  intermediate  between  o  and  u,  and  is  pronounced  with  the  lips 
nearly  closed  (the  upper  projecting),  leaving  only  a  small  hole  in 
the  middle,  as  if  to  blow  a  flute  :  tliis  sound  is  here  represented  by 
u; — eu,  and  oeu  are  more  full  and  open  than  u;  they  are  here 
represented  by  u  : — r  ia  sounded  hard  like  rr.  The  nasal  vowels  an, 
in,  on,  un,  cannot  be  represented  by  letters,  The  articulation  of 
the  n  must  end  when  the  tip  of  the  tongue  is  at  the  root  of  the 
lower  teeth,  without  any  motion  towards  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
The  English  syllables  ang,  aing,  ong,  ung,  though  not  a  correct,  are 
Btill  the  nearest  representalion  of  the  sound  that  can  be  made  to 
the  e)'e.  Indeed,  it  is  impossible  by  means  of  letters  to  represent 
the  correct  pronunciation  of  most  French  words.  This  can  be  done 
only  to  the  ear.  The  following  therefore  is  to  be  regarded  only  as 
the  nearest  that  can  be  given  ;  and  for  this  I  am  indebted  to  my 
friend  Prof.  Molinard. 

Aide-de-camp,  aid-de-kang,  an  assistant  to  a  general.  [time. 

A  la  bonne  heure,  a  la  bonn  urr,  at  an  early  hour  ;  in  the  nick  of 

Affaire  de  coeur,  affair  de  kurr,  a  love  affair ;  an  amour. 

A  la  mode,  a  la  mod,  according  to  the  fashion. 

Allons,  allong,  come,  let  us  go. 

A  propos,  a  pr6-p6,  to  the  ])urpose,  opportunely. 

Au  fait,  6  fay,  well  acquainted  with,  thoroughly  versed  in. 

Au  fond,  o  fong,  to  the  bottom,  or  main  point. 

Auto  da  f6,  6-to-da  fa  ;  (Portuguese,)  burning  of  heretics. 

Bagatelle,  bagatell,  a  trifle. 

Beau  monde,  bo  mongd,  the  gay  world  ;  people  of  fashion. 

Beaux  esprits,  boz  esprec,  men  of  wit, 

Billet  doux,  bec-ye  doo,  a  love  letter. 

Bon  mot,  bong  mo,  a  piece  of  wit ;  a  jest ;  a  quibble. 

Bon  ton,  bong  tong,  in  high  fashion. 

Bon  grd,  mal  gr6,  bong  gra,  mal  gra,  with  a  good,  or  ill  grace> 
whether  the  party  will  or  not. 

Bon  jour,  bong  zhoor,  good  day. 

Boudoir,  boo-do-ar,  a  small  private  apartment. 

Canaille,  ca-ni-ye,  lowest  of  the  people  ;  rabble  ;  mob. 

Carle  blanclie,  kart  blangsh,  a  blank  sheet  of  paper  ;  uncondi- 

Chitcau,  shjl-to,  a  country  seat.  [tional  terms. 

Chef  d'oBUvre,  she  duvr,  a  niastcr-piecc. 

Ci  devant,  see  dev2ing,  formerly. 

Comme  il  faut,  kom  il  f  6,  as  it  should  be. 


210       APPENDIX. FRENCH    WORDS    AND    PHRASES.        VI 

Con  amore,  kon  a-inora,  (Italian,)  witli  love  ;  gladly.         [stroke. 

Coup  (ic  grace,  koo  de  gifi.ss,  a   stroke  of  mercy  ;  the  finishing 

Coup  dc  main,  koo  de  niaing,  a  .sudden  or  hold  enterprise. 

Coup  dVeil,  koo  du-ee-ye,  a  (juick  glance  of  the  eye. 

D'ailleurs,  da  yurr,  moreover,  besides. 

l)(^bat,  da-bu,  the  beginning  ;  the  lead;  first  appearance. 

Dernier  rcssort,  dern-ya  ressorr,  the  last  shift  or  resource. 

D6p6t,  da-po,  a  store  or  magazine.  [meaning. 

Double    entendre,  (a   double  entente,)  doobl  ^ng-t&ngdr,    double 

Douceur,  doos-surr,  a  present  or  bribe. 

Dieu  et  mon  droit,  dce-u  a  mong  dro-ah,  God  and  my  right. 

Eclat,  a-cla,  splendor. — Eleve,  a-lev,  a  pupil. 

Elite,  a-lcct,  choice  ;  prime  ;  of  the  better  sort. 

Embonpoint,  ang-bong-po-aing,  in  good  condition  ;  jolly. 

En  flute,  ang  flute,  carrying  guns  on  the  upper  deck  only. 

En  masse,  ang-mass,  in  a  body,  or  mass. 

En  passant,  ang  passang,  by  the  way  ;  in  passing. 

Ennui,  ang-nw-ee,  w^earisomeness. — Entree,  ang-tra,  entrance. 

Faux  pas,  fo  pa,  a  slip  ;  misconduct. 

Fete,  fayte,  a  feast  or  entertainment. 

Honi  soi  qui  mal  y  pense,  ho-nee  soah  kee  mal  cc  p3lngce,  evil  be 

Hauteur,  ho-turr,  haughtiness.  [to  him  tliat  evil  thinks. 

Je  ne  sals  quoi,  zhe  ne  say  koah,  1  know  not  what. 

Jeu  de  mots,  zhu  de  mo,  a  play  upon  words. 

Jeu  d'esprit,  zhu  despree,  a  display  of  wit ;  a  witticism. 

Mal  a  propos,  mal  a  pr6-p6,  unfit,  unseasonable. 

Mauvaise  honte,  mo-vaze  hongt,  unbecoming  bashfulness. 

Mot  du  guet,  mo  du  ga,  a  wateh-word. 

N'importe,  naing-port,  it  matters  not. 

Nous  verrons,  noo  verrong,  we  shall  see. 

Outrd,  oo-tra,  eccentric;  blustering;  not  gentle. 

Petit  maitre,  peti  maitr,  a  beau,  a  fop. 

Pis  aller,  pee  zalla,  a  last  resoui'ce. 

Prot^g^,  pro-la-zhi,  a  person  patronised  and  protected. 

Rechercli6,  re-shair-sha,  rare  ;  scarce  ;  much  sought  after. 

Rouge,  roozhe,  red,  or  a  kind  of  red  paint  for  the  face. 

Sang  froid,  sang  fro-ah,  cold  blood  ;  indifference. 

Sans  c^r6monie,  sang  sereraonee,  without  ceremony. 

Savant,  sa-vang,  a  wise  or  learned  man. 

Soi-disant,  soah-deezang,  self-called  ;   pretended. 

Tant  mieux,  tang  mee-u,  so  much  the  better. 

Tapis,  ta-pee,  the  carpet. — Trait,  tra}^  feature,  touch,  arrow. 

Tete  a  tele,  tate  a  tate,  face  to  face  ;  a  private  conversation. 

Tout  ensemble,  too  tang-sangbl,  taken  as  a  whole  ;  the  genoral 

Unique,  wneek,  singular.  [appearance. 

Un  bel  esprit,  wng  bel  espree,  a  wit,  a  virtuoso. 

Valet-de-chambre,  vale  de-shangbr,  a  chamber  footman. 

Vis  a  vis,  vee  za  vee,  opposite  ;  face  to  face. 

Vive  le  roi,  veev-k-roah,  live  the  king 


VII. 


APPENDIX. LATIN    WORDS    AND    PHRASES. 


211 


VII.     LATIN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

The  pronunciation  has  not  been  added  to  the  Latin,  because  everv 
letter  is  sounded,  e  final,  not  excepted. 


Ab  initio,  from  the  beginning. 
Ab  urbe  condita,  from  the  building 
of  the  city;  abrided  thus,  A.  U.  C. 
Ad  captandum  vulgus,  to  ensnare 

the  vulgar. 
Ad  infinitum,  to  infinity. 

Ad  libitum,  at  pleasure- 
Ad  referendum,  for  consideration. 

Ad  valorem,  according  to  value. 

A  fortiori,  with  stronger  reason. 

Alias,  otherwise. 

Alibi,  elsewhere. 

Alma  mater,  universit}',  benign  mo- 
ther. 

Anglice,  in  English. 

Anno  domini,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord— A.  D. 

Anno  mundi,  in  the  year  of  the 
world— A.  M. 

A  posteriori,  from  the  latter,  from 
behind. 

A  priori,  from  the  former,  from  be- 
fore, or  from  the  cause. 

Arcanum,  a  secret. 

Arcana  imperii,  state  secrets. 

Argumentum  ad  hominem,  an  ap- 
peal to  the  practices  or  professed 
principles  of  the  adversary. 

Argumentum  ad  judicium,  an  ap- 
peal to  the  common  sense  of 
mankind. 

Argumentum  ad  fidem,  an  appeal 
to  our  faith. 

Argumentum  ad  populum,  an  ap- 
peal to  the  people. 

Argumentum  ad  passiones,  an  ap- 
peal to  the  passions. 

Audi  alteram  partem,  hear  both 
sides. 

Bona  fide,  in  good  faith,  in  reality. 

Contra,  against. 

Cacoeihes  scribendi,  an  itch  for 
writing. 

Caeteris  paribus,  other  circumstan- 
ces being  equal. 

Caput  mortuum,  the  worthless  re- 
mains, dead  head. 

Compos  metuis,  in  one's  senses. 

Cum  privilegio,  with  privilege- 


Data,  things  granted. 
De  facto,  from  the  fact,  in  reality 
De  jure,  from  the  law,  justly. 
Dei  ijratia,  by  the  grace  c/r  favor  of 

God. 
Deo  volentc,  God  willing.  D.  V. 

Desunt  canera,  the  rest  are  wanting 

Desideratum,  something  desirable, 
a  thing  wanted. 

Dramatis   persona;,  characters  re- 
piesented- 

Durante  vita,  during  life. 

Durante  placito,  during  pleasure- 

E  pluribus  unum,  one  composed 
of  many. 

Ergo,  therefore. 

Errata,  errors.— p]rra turn,  an  error- 

Esto  perpelua,  let  it  be  perpetual. 

Et  cffitera,  and  the  rest,  contr-  &,c. 

Ex  cathreda,  from  the  chair,  with 
authority. 

Excerpta,  extracts. 

Exempli  gratia,   as  for    example, 
contracted    e.  g. 

Ex  officio,  officially,  by  virtue  of 
office. 

Ex  parte,  on  one  side. 

Ex  tempore,  without  premeditation 

Fac  simile,  exact  copy,  or  resem- 
blance. 

Fiat,  let  it  be  done,  or  made. 

Flagrante  bello,  during  hostilities. 

Gratis,  for  nothing. 

Hora  fugit,  the  hour  or  time  flies. 

Humanum  est  errare,  to  err  is  hu- 
man. 

Ibidem,  in  the  same  place. 

Idem,  the  same. 

Id  est,  that  is,  contr.  i.  e- 

Ignoramus,  an   ignorant  fellow,  a 
dunce. 

In  loco,  in  this  place- 
Imprimis,  in  the  first  place. 

In  terrorem,  as  a  warning- 

In  propria  persona,  in  liis  own  per 
son. 

In  statu  quo,  in  the  former  state 

Inst,  for  instante,  the  present. 

Ipse  dixit,  on  his  sole  assertion 


212         APPENDIX. LATIN    WORDS    AND    PHRASES.        VII. 


Ipso  facto,  by  the  fact  itself. 
Ipso  jure,  by  the  law  itself. 
Item,  also,  article 
Jure  tii vino,  by  divine  riijht. 
Jure  huinano,  by  human  law. 
Jus  gentium,  the  law  ofnMtions. 
Locum  tenens,  deputy,  substitute. 
Labor  omnia  vincit,  labour  over- 
comes every  thing. 
Liceiitia  vaium,  a  poetical  license. 
Linj^UcB  lapsus,  a  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Magnacharta,  the  great  charter.the 

basis  of  our  laws  and  liberties. 
Memento  mori,  remember  death. 
Memorabilia,  matters  deserving  of 

record. 
Memorandum,  a   thing  to   be  re- 
membered. 
Meum  et  tuum,  mine  and  thine. 
Multum  in  parvo,  much  in  httle,  a 

great  deal  in  a  few  words. 
Mutatis   mutandis,  the    necessary 

changes  being  made. 
Mutato  nomine,  the   name   being 

changed. 
Nemo  me  impune  lacesset,  no  one 

shall  provoke  me  with  impunity. 
Ne  plus  ultra,  no  farther,  nothing 

beyond. 
Nolens  volens,  willing  or  unwilling. 
Non  compos  mentis,  not  of  a  sound 

mind. 
Ne  quid   nimis,  too  much  of  one 

thing  is  good  for  nothing. 
Nisi   dominus  frustra,  unless   the 

Lord  be  with  us,  all  efforts  are  in 

vain. 
Nem.  con.  (for  nemine  contradi- 

cente)  none  opposing. 
Nem  dis.  (for  nemine  dissentiente) 

none  disagreeing. 
Omnibus,  for  all,  a  public  convey- 
ance. 
Ore  tenus,  from  the  mouth. 
O  tempora,  O  mores,  O  the  times, 

O  the  manners. 
Omnes,  all. 
Onus,  burden. 
Passim,  every  where. 
Per  se,  by  itself,  alone. 
Posse  comitatus,  the  power  of  the 

county. 
Prima  facie,  at  first  view  or  at  first 

sigat. 


Primum  mobile,  the  main  spring. 
Pro  mill  con.  for  and  against. 
Pro  bono   publico,   for  the  good  of 

the  public. 
Pro  loco  f't  tempore,  for  the  place, 

and  time. 
Pro  re  riat;i,  for  a  special  bu-siness. 
Pro  rege,   lege,  et  grege  ;  for   the 

king,  the   constitution,   and  the 

people. 
Quo  anitiio,  with  what  mind. 
Quojure,  by  what  right. 
Quoad,  as  far  as. 
Quondam,  formerly,  fjrmer. 
Res  publica,  the  commonwealth. 
Resurgam,  I  shall  rise  again. 
Rc.x,  a  king — Regina,   a  queen. 
Senatus  consultum,  a  decree  of  se- 
nate, S.  C. 
Seriatim,  in  regular  order. 
Sine  die,   without  specifying  any 

particular  day. 
Sine   qua   non,   an  indispensable 

pre-requisite  or  condition. 
Statu  quo,  the  state  in  which  it  was. 
Sub  poena,  under  a  penalty. 
Sui  generis,  of  its  own  kind   i.  e. 

singular. 
Supra,  above. 

Summum  bonum,  the  chief  good. 
Tria  juncta  in  uno,  three  joined  in 

one. 
Toties  quoties,  as  often  as. 
Una  voce,  with  one  voice,  unani- 
mously. 
Ultimup,  the  last,  (contr.  ult.) 
Utile  duici,  the  useful  with  the  plea 

sant. 
Verbatim,  word  for  word. 
Versus,  against. 
Vade  mecum,  go  with  me ;  a  book 

fit  for  being  a  constant  com 

panion. 
Vale,  farewell. 
Via,  by  the  way  of. 
Vice,  in  the  room  of. 
Vice  versa,  the  reverse. 
Vide,  see,  (contr.  v.) 
Vide  ut  supra,  see  as  above. 
Vis  poetica,  poetic  genius. 
Viva  voce,  orally ;   by  the  Uvinp 

voice. 
Vo.x  populi,  the  voice  of  the  people. 
Vulgo,  commonly. 


VIII.  APPENDIX. — LAW    PHRASES.  213 


VIIL  LAW  GLOSSARY. 

[Containing  an  explanation  of  some  law  terms  and  phrases  in  com- 
man  use.] 

Accessary. — One  guilty  of  a  felonious  offence,  not  as  principal, 
but  by  participation  ;  as  by  advice,  command,  concealment,  &c. 

Ac  etiam. — Tlie  clause  in  a  writ,  where  the  action  requires  bail, 
stating  the  true  cause  of  action. 

Act  of  God. — Accidents  from  physical  causes,  which  cannot  be 
prevented  ;  as  the  death  of  a  person. 

Alibi. — At  another  place,  a  plea  often  set  up. 

Anirmis, — the  mind,  the  intention.  Quo  animo  ?  with  what  in- 
tent.    Animo  furandi,  with  the  intent  to  steal,  »Stc. 

Arson — The  crime  of  maliciously  burning  the  dwelling  or  out- 
house  of  another  man. 

Assault  and  Battery. — Assault,  the  attempt  to  do  corporeal  vio 
lence  or  hurt  to  another. — Battery,  the  actual  doing  of  it. 

Assumpsit. — An  action  upon  the  case  on  assumpsit,  is  an  action 
for  the  compensation  in  damages  for  the  breach  or  violation  of  any 
parol,  contract  (express  or  implied,  verbal  or  written,)  or  promise. 

Aitachinent. — A  taking  of  the  person,  goods,  or  estate,  by  a  writ 
or  precept  in  a  civil  action,  to  secure  a  debt  or  demand. 

Attainder. — The  sentence  of  a  competent  tribunal,  upon  a  per- 
son convicted  of  treason  or  felony,  which  judgment  attaints  or 
corrupts  his  blood,  so  that  he  can  no  longer  inherit  lands,  attended 
with  forfeiture  of  property,  loss  of  reputation,  and  disqualification 
to  be  a  witness  in  a  court  of  law. 

Baron  et  feme. — the  law  term  for  husband  and  wife. 

Burglary. — The  act  or  crime  of  breaking  into  a  house  by  night, 
with  intent  to  commit  a  felony. 

Capias,  (that  you  take,)  a  writ  or  process,  it  is  of  two  sorts,  viz. 

Capias  ad  respondendum. — A  judicial  writ  before  judgment,  to 
take  the  defendant  and  make  him  answer  the  plantifF. 

Capias  ad  satisfaciendum. — (Commonly  called  a  Ca.  Sa.)  a  writ 
commanding  the  sheriff"  to  take  the  body  of  the  defendant,  and  him 
safely  keep,  &c. 

Carte  blanche. — The  signature  of  a  person  on  a  blank  paper, 
with  room  above  to  be  afterwards  filled  with  a  promissory  note,  con- 
tract,  &c. 

Cassetur  bulla  vel  breve,  that  the  bill  or  writ  be  quashed. 

Certiorari. — A  writ  issued  from  a  superior  to  an  inferior  tribunal, 
commanding  them  to  certify,  or  to  return  the  record  or  proceedings 
before  them,  by  which  the  cause  is  removed  from  the  one  to  the  other. 

Cognovit,  (he  has  confcst;ed,)  is  where  tlic  defendant  having  no 
available  defence,  gives  the  plaintitf  an  acknowledgment  or  written 
confession  of  the  action,  and  suffers  judgment  to  pass  against  him 
by  default,  i.  c.  without  trial. 


214  APPENDIX. — LAW    PHRASES.  VIII. 

Crime. — In  a  general  sense,  a  crime  is  an  act  that  violates  a  law 
divine  or  human.  In  a  more  restricted  sense,  it  denotes  an  offence 
or  violation  of  public  law,  of  a  deeper  and  more  atrocious  nature, 
such  as  treason,  murder,  robbery,  theft,  arson,  &c.  Minor  wrongs 
against  public  rights  arc  called  misdemeanors,  against  individuals  or 
private  rights,  trespasses. 

Declaration. — A  statement  in  legal  form  of  the  circumstance 
which  constitutes  the  plaintiff's  cause  of  action. 

Demurrer,  is  a  pleading,  which  admits  all  such  facts  alleged  by 
the  adverse  party  as  are  well  pleaded,  and  refers  all  the  questions 
arising  upon  them  to  the  court :  it  does  not  deny  the  truth,  but 
only  the  legal  sufficiency  of  the  allegations  demurred  to. 

Distrain. — To  make  a  seizure  of  goods. 

Distress The  act  of  distraining  ;  taking  any  personal  chattels 

from  a  wrong  doer  to  answer  a  demand,  or  procure  satisfaction  for 
a  wrong  committed. 

Execution. — An  instrument,  warrant  or  official  order,  by  which 
an  officer  is  empowered  to  carry  a  judgment  into  effect. 

Ex  post  facto,  (laws.)  An  ex  post  facto  laic,  is  one  which 
operates  upon  a  subject  not  liable  to  it  at  the  time  the  law  was 
made  ;  or  a  law  which  punishes  acts  already  committed,  in  a  man- 
ner in  which  they  were  not  by  law  punishable  wlien  committed. 
Such  laws  are  prohibited  by  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 

Felony. — A  legal  term  for  all  offences  which  may  be  punished  by 
imprisonment  in  the  States  prison. 

Fieri  facias,  (that  you  cause  it  to  be  done,)  a  judicial  writ  of 
execution,  familiarly  called  by  contraction,  Fi.  Fa. 

Testatum  fieri  facias. — An  execution  issued  to  another  county, 
than  the  one  in  which  the  vendue  is  laid. 

Forma  pauperis. — Poor  persons  may  sue  in  forma  pauperis,  and 
have  writs  and  counsel  assigned  without  fee. 

Habeas  Corpus,  is  a  writ  issued  by  a  judge,  directed  to  any  per- 
son having  another  in  custody,  commanding  him  to  produce  him, 
or  to  show  cause  why  he  is  in  custody. 

Homicide,  the  killing  of  any  human  being.  Justifiable  homicide 
has  no  share  of  guilt  at  all  ; — excusable  homicide,  very  little  ; — fe. 
lonious  homicide  is  the  highest  crime  against  the  law  of  nature, 
that  a  man  is  capable  of  committing,  and  includes  self-murder, 
man-slaughter  and  murder. 

Infant. — A  person  under  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  incapa- 
ble of  making  contracts. 

In  limine. — In  or  at  the  beginning. 

Issue. — The  point  depending  in  a  suit  on  which  the  parties  join, 
and  put  the  case  to  trial  by  a  jury. — General  issue,  denies  at  once 
all  the  indictment  or  declaration,  without  new  evasive  matter. 

Larceny,  (Latrocinium.)  Theft — the  stealing  of  any  thing  be- 
low a  certain  amount  is  called  petty  larceny; — above  that  value, 
grand  larceny. 


VIII.  APPENDIX. — LAW   PHRASES.  215 

Leading  question. — A  question  put  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicata 
the  answer  which  the  party  wishes  to  get.  The  examiner  leadt 
him  to  the  answer. 

Locum  tenens. — One  who  holds  the  place  of  another  as  his  deputy. 

Mandamus,  a  writ  issued  from  a  superior  court  to  an  inferior, 
or  to  an  officer,  commanding  them  to  do  certain  acts,  or  to  restrain 
them  from  doing  any  thing  beyond  their  jurisdiction. 

Nolle  prosequi,  is  used  in  law  where  the  plaintiff  will  not  pro- 
ceed any  further.  In  criminal  cases  it  amounts  to  an  abandonment 
by  the  public  prosecutor,  of  an  indictment-  It  does  not  prevent 
the  finding  of  a  new  indictment,  and  therefore,  does  not  operate  aa 
an  acquittal,  and  is  entered  by  the  order  of  the  court,  on  the  motion 
of  the  public  prosecutor. 

Non  assumpsit, — the  plea  of  Non  assu7npsit  in  an  action  of  at. 
sumpsit,  is  the  general  issue  or  denial. 

Non  pros,  or  non  prosequitur,  the  name  of  a  judgment  rendered 
against  a  plainlift"  for  neglecting  to  prosecute  his  suit. 

Non  suit,  the  name  of  a  judgment  rendered  against  a  plantifi^ 
when  through  defect  of  evidence  or  otherwise,  he  withdraws  his 
cause  from  the  jury,  or  neglects  or  refuses  to  prove  his  cause. 

Nul  tiel  record,  (no  such  record,)  the  name  of  a  plea  or  replica- 
tion, vvhicli  denies  a  record,  on  which  a  declaration  or  plea  is 
founded. 

Onus  probandi. — Burden  of  proof.  This  lies  upon  the  party  to 
a  suit  who  alleges  tlie  affirmative.  He  who  has  the  onus  probandi, 
is  entitled  to  begin  and  close  the  argument  of  a  case. 

Oyer  and  terminer.  Fr.  oyer,  to  hear ;  terminer,  to  determine. 
The  name  of  the  criminal  courts  whicli  have  power  to  enquire  into, 
hear  and  determine  all  treasons,  felonic!<,  crimes,  and  misdemeanors, 
and  deliver  the  jails  of  all  prisoners  therein. 

Panel. — A  schedule  or  roll  containing  tlie  names  of  jurors,  sum- 
moned by  virtue  of  a  writ  of  venire  facias,  and  annexed  to  the  writ. 

Particeps  criminis. — A  partner  in  crime. 

Plea,  is  the  defendant's  answer  to  the  plaintiff's  declaration. 

Posse  comitatus.  The  armed  power  of  the  county,  accompany- 
ing the  sheriff  to  assist  him  in  serving  legal  processes. 

Prochain  amy.     Next  friend,  one  who  Rues  for  an  infant. 

Pro  coTifesso.     For  confessed,  as  if  confessed. 

Pro  rata. — According  to  the  rate. 

Projert  and  oyer. — VVhen  an  action  is  founded  upon  a  deed,  (as 
a  bond,  covenant,  &.c.)  and  the  party  claims  title  under  it,  he  must 
make  profert  in  curia,  iiy  averring  that  he  brings  here  into  court 
the  deed  ;  and  craving  oyer  (hearing,)  according  to  the  original 
meaning  of  the  word,  is  to  crave  to  hear  it  read,  though  the  imme- 
diate object  now  proposed  in  demanding  oyer  of  a  deed,  is  to  obtain 
a  copy  of  it. 

Rectus  in  curia. — Right  in  court.  One  who  stands  at  the  bar, 
and  no  one  objects  to  him,  or  prefers  any  charge  against  him. 


216  APPENDIX. LAW    PHRASES.  VIU. 

Replevin. — An  action  or  remedy  fjratilcd  on  a  distrcs.s,  hy  wliicli 
a  jierson  wliosc  cattle  or  goods  have  been  distrained,  lias  them  re- 
turned to  him  on  giving  security,  to  try  the  right  of  taking  in  a 
suit  at  law.     The  writ  by  which  a  distress  is  re('levied. 

Scire  facias. — A  judicial  writ  founded  upon  some  record,  and  re- 
quiring the  person  against  whom  it  is  brought,  to  shew  cause  why 
the  party  bringing  it,  should  not  liave  advantage  of  such  record, 
or  (in  the  case  of  a  scire  facias,  to  repeal  letters  patent,)  why  the 
record  should  not  be  annulled  and  vacated. 

Subpmna,  (under  a  penally,)  a  judicial  writ  or  command  to  an- 
swer to  a  suit,  or  to  give  evidence  in  a  cause.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  words  therein,  which  charge  the  party  to  appear  at  the 
day  and  place  assigned  uiidtr  a  pi  iialty. 

Subpoena  ad  testificandum,  a  subpiena  to  testify. 

Subpmna  duces  tecum. — A  bubpccna,  commanding  the  witness 
to  bring  with  him  books  and  pa])ers  in  his  possession,  belonging  to, 
or  wherein  the  parties  are  interested,   &-c. 

Tales. — Whenever  the  panel  of  jurors  is  exhausted,  the  court  or- 
ders the  sheriff  to  summon  f;om  the  by-standers,  the  number  of 
jurors  wanted.     The  persons  thus  summoned,  are  called  Tales-men. 

Tort,  (Fr.) — A  wrong  or  injury. 

Traverse,  (to  cross.)  To  deny  what  the  opposite  party  has  al- 
leged.    To  traverse  an  indictment,   &c.  is  to  deny  it. 

Trespass. — An  unlawful  act  committed  on  the  person,  properly, 
or  relative  rights  of  another. 

Trover,  {Fr.  trouver  to  find.)  An  action  which  a  man  has 
against  another,  who  has  found  or  obtained  possession  of  any  of 
his  goods,  and  who  refuses  to  deliver  them  on  demand.  It  admits 
the  original  taking  to  have  been  lawful,  but  denies  the  right  to  con- 
vert them  to  his  own  use.  This  conversion  is  the  gist  (git)  of  the 
action. 

Venire  facias.  The  process  on  an  indictment  for  any  petit  mis- 
demeanor.  It  is  of  the  nature  of  a  summons.  Also  the  writ  or 
summons  by  which  jurors  arc  summoned  to  appear  in  court  and 
serve. 

Venue. — The  statement  in  a  declaration  of  the  county  or  place, 
m  which  the  facts  are  alleged  to  have  occurred,  and  where  the 
cause  is  mtended  to  be  tried  :  as.   County  of  Albany,  ss. 

Verdict,  (verum  dictum,  true  declaration.) — The  answer  of  a 
jury  given  to  the  court,  concerning  any  matter  of  fact  in  any  cause, 
civil  or  criminal  committed  to  their  trial  and  examination. 

Voire  dire. — (To  speak  the  truth,]  is  when  a  witness  previously 
o  his  giving  evidence  in  a  cause,  is  sworn  as  to  his  interest,  &c. 

Vi  et  armis. — With  force  and  arms,  words  used  in  a  writ  of  tres- 
pass. 

Writ. — A  precept  issued  from  the  proper  authority,  to  the  sheriff 
or  other  subordinate  officer,  commanding  him  to  perform  some  act. 

THE    END. 


BULLIONS' 

SERIES  OF  GRAMMARS, 

ENGLISH,  LATIN  AND  GREEK, 

ON  THE  SAME  PLAN, 

FOR  THE  USE  OF 

Colleges,  Acadesuies  &  Coiuiuon  Schools. 

(Published  by  Pratt,  Woodford  &  Co.,  N.  Y.) 


In  preparing  this  series,  the  main  object  has  been.  First; 
To  provide  for  the  use  of  schools  a  set  of  class  books  on 
this  important  branch  of  study,  more  simple  in  their  ar- 
rangement, more  complete  in  their  parts,  and  better  adapted 
to  the  purposes  of  public  instruction,  than  any  heretofore  in 
use  in  our  public  Seminaries :  and   Secondly,  to  give  the 
whole  a  uniform  character  by  follovving,  in  each,  substan- 
tially,   the  same  arrangement    of   parts,  using    the    same 
grammatical  terms,  and  expressing  the  definitions,  rules, 
and  leading  parts,  as  nearly    as    the    nature    of  the  case 
would  admit  in  the  same  language  j  and  thus  to  render  thf 
study  of  one  Grammar  a  more  profitable  introduction  to  the 
study  of  another  than  it  can  be,  when  the  books  used  dif- 
fer so  widely  from  each  other  in  their  whole  style  and  ar 
rangement,  as  those  now  in  use  commonly  do.     By  thi; 
means,  it  is  believed,  much  time  and  labor  w^ill  be  saved 
both  to  teacher  and  pupil, — the  analogy  and  peculiaritie: 
of  the  different  languages  being  constantly  kept  in  view,  wil 
show  what  is  common  to  all,  or  peculiar  to  each, — the  confu 
sion  and  difficulty  unnecessarily  occasioned  by  the  use  o! 


elementary  works,  differing  widely  from  each  other  in  lan- 
guage and  structure  will  be  avoided, — and  the  progress  of 
the  student  rendered  much  more  rapid,  easy  and  satis- 
factory. 

These  works  form  a  complete  series  of  elementary 
books,  in  which  the  substance  of  the  best  Grammars  in 
each  language  has  been  compressed  into  a  volume  of 
convenient  size,  handsomely  printed  on  a  fine  paper, 
neatly  and  strongly  bound,  and  at  a  moderate  price. 
The  whole  series  is  now  submitted  to  the  judgment  of 
a  discerning  public,  and  especially  to  teachers  and  su- 
perintendents of  schools,  and  seminaries  of  learning  through- 
out the  United  States. 

The  following  notices  and  recommendations  of  the 
works  separately,  and  of  the  series,  both  from  individual? 
of  the  highest  standing  in  the  community,  and  from  the 
public  press,  will  furnish  some  idea  of  the  plan  pro- 
posed, and  of  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  executed 

I.  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

Comprising  the  suhsiaitce  nf  the  most  approved  English  Grammars 
extant — loith  copious  exercises  in  ParsiiNg  and  Syntax.  Fifth  edition 
with  an  ArrEXDix,  of  various  and  useful  niatter,  pp.  216^  12  ino.  New- 
York,  Robinson,  Pratt  &  Co. 

This  work,  on  the  plan  of  Murray's  Grammar,  has  been  prepared  with 
much  care,  and  with  special  reference  to  the  wants  of  our  Common 
Schools.  It  comprises  in  a  condensed  form,  and  expressed  in  plain  and 
perspicuous  language,  all  that  is  useful  and  important  in  the  works  of 
.he  latest  and  best  writers  on  this  subject, — an  advantage  possessed  in  an 
;qual  degree  by  no  similar  work  now  in  use.  It  is  the  result  not  only 
)f  much  study  and  careful  comparison,  but  of  nearly  twenty-five  years 
;xperience  in  the  school  room,  during  which,  the  wants  of  the  pupil 
md  the  character  of  books  best  adapted  to  those  wants,  have  been  care- 
ully  noted  ;  and  its  adaptation  to  the  purpose  of  instruction  has  now  been 
horoughly  tested  and  approved  in  some  of  the  best  schools  in  this  coun- 
ry.     It  is  beautifully  printed  on  a  fine  strong  paper,  neatly   and  firmly 


f«ound,  and  forms  one  of  the  most  complete,  usefu],  and  economical  school 
books  ever  offered  to  the  public.     The  following  are  a  few  extracts  from, 

NOTICES  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The  undersigned  have  great  satisfaction  in  recommending  to  the  pub. 
lie,  "  The  Principles  of  English  Grammar,"  by  Prof.  Bullions,  of  the 
Albany  Academy.  Proceeding  upon  the  plan  of  Murray,  he  has  availed 
himself  of  the  labors  of  the  most  distinguished  grammarians,  both  at 
home  and  abroad ;  and  made  such  a  happy  use  of  the  helps  afforded  him, 
that  we  know  of  no  work  of  the  kind,  in  the  same  compass,  which  is 
equal  to  it  in  point  of  merit.  Among  its  many  excellencies,  it  is  not  the 
least,  that  Prof.  B.  has  given  a  practical  illuslralion  of  every  principle 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  ;  and  the  possession  of  his  Grammar  en- 
tirely  supersedes  the  necessity  of  procuring  a  separate  volume  of  Exer- 
cises on  the  Rules  of  Syntax.  In  a  word,  we  can  truly  say,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  tlie  autiior,  "  that  there  is  nothing  of  nmch  importance  in 
Murray's  larger  Grammar,  or  in  the  works  of  subsequent  writers,  that 
will  not  be  found  condensed  here." 

John  Ludlow,  Alonzo  Crittenton, 

Isaac  Ferris,  J.  M.  Garfield, 

Alfred  Conklinq,  Robert  McKee. 

T.  RoMEVN  Beck. 
Albany,  October  8,  1842. 


[An  Extract  from  the  Minutes  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Al 
hany  Female  Academy.] 
At  a  meeting  of  the  trustees  of  the  Albany  Female  Academy,  held  oil 
the  third  instant,  the  book  committee  reported,  that  they  had  cxaminet 
Professor  Bullions'  English  Grammar,  recently  published  in  this  city 
and  that  in  their  opinion,  it  contains  all  tliat  is  useful  in  the  most  iin  I 
proved  treatises  now  in  use,  as  well  as  much  valuable  original  matter 
that  from  the  copious  exercises  in  false  syntax,  it  will  supersede  the  nc 
cessity  of  a  separate  volume  on  that  subject ;  and  recommend  that  i 
should  be  used  as  the  text  book  in  this  institution. 

On  motion,  it  was  resolved,  that  the  report  of  the  committee  be  ac  j 
cepted,  and  the  treatise  on  Eyglish    Grammar ;  by  the   Rev.  Peter  Bu 
lions,  adopted  as  the  text  book  in  this  academy. 

An  Extract  from  the  Minutes. 

A.  Crittenton,  Secretary  of  tl  | 
Board  of  Trustees,  and 
Principal  of  the  Academ 
Albany,  October  13,  1834. 

Sing- Sing,  November  1,  1834. 

Dkar  Sir — I    have  examined  your  English  Grammar  with  no  sm; 

degree  of  satisfaction  ;  and  though  I  am  not  in  the  habit  of  recommen  j 

ing  books  in  this  manner,  I  am  constrained  in  this  case  to  say,  I  thii 

you  have  conferred  another  important  favour  on  the  cause  of  educatio 


The  great  defects  of  most  of  the  English  grammars  now  in  use,  particu- 
larly in  the  omission  of  many  neccHsary  definitions,  or  in  the  want  of 
perspicuity  in  those  given,  and  also  in  the  rules  of  construction,  are  in  a 
great  measure  happily  supplied.  I  am  so  well  pleased  with  tlie  result  of 
your  labors,  that  I  have  adopted  it,  (as  I  did  your  Greek  Grammar)  for 
both  our  institutions.  Yours  respectfully, 

Nathaniel  S.  Prime,  Principal  oj 
Rev.  p.  Bullions,  Mt.  Pleasant  Academij, 


The  undersigned  hold  the  responsibility  of  recommendation  as  an  im 
portant  one — often  abused,  and  very  frequently  used  to  obliged  a  per- 
sonal  friend,  or  to  get  rid  of  an  urgent  applicant.  They  further  appeal 
to  their  own  conduct  for  years  past,  to  show  that  they  have  only  occa- 
eionally  assumed  this  responsibility  ;  and  tlicrefore  feel  the  greater  confi- 
dence in  venturing  to  recommend  the  examination,  and  the  adoption  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Bullions'  English  Grammar,  as  at  once  the  most  concise 
and  the  most  comprehensive  of  any  with  which  they  are  acquainted  ;  as 
furnishing  a  satisfactory  solution  of  nearly  all  the  difficulties  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  ;  as  containing  a  full  series  of  exercises  in  false  syntax, 
with  rules  for  their  correction ;  and  finally,  that  the  arrangement  is  in 
every  way  calculated  to  carry  the  pupil  from  step  to  step  in  the  success- 
ful acquisition  of  that  most  important  end  of  education,  ihc  knowledge 
and  use  of  the  English  language.  GIDEON  HAWLEY, 

T.  ROMEYN  BECK, 

March  1,  1842.  JOHN  A.  DIX. 


A  cursory  examination  of  the  English  Grammar  of  Dr.  Bullions,  has 
satisfied  me,  that  it  has  just  claims  on  public  favour.  It  is  concise  and 
simple  ;  the  matter  is  well  digested  ;  the  exercises  excellent,  and  the  ty- 
pographical execution  worthy  of  all  praise.  The  subscriber  takes  plea- 
'sure  in  recommending  it  to  the  notice  of  Teachers,  and  of  all  persons 
interested  in  education.  ALONZO  POTTER. 

Union  College,  Sept.  6,  1842. 


The  English  Grammar  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bullions,  appears  to  me,  to  be 
the  best  manual  which  has  appeared  as  yet.  With  all  the  good  points 
of  Murray,  it  has  additions  and  emendations,  which  I  cannot  but  think 
would  have  commended  themselves  to  Murray  himself,  and  if  I  were  a 
teacher  of  English  Grammar,  I  would  without  hesitation  prefer  it  to  any 
-other  book  of  the  kind,  JAMES  W.  ALEXANDER,  ^ 

Professor  of  Belles  Lettres,  College  of  N.  J. 

Princeton,  Aug.  15,  1842 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Rev.  Benjamin  Hale,  D.D.,  President  oJ  Oe 
neva  College  N.  Y. 
Rev.  Dr.  Bullions. — Dear  Sir — I  have  lately  procured  a  copy  of  your 
ish  Grammar,  and  given  it  such  attention  as  my  time  has  permitted, 
tancTl  do  not  hesitate  to  express  my  conviction,  that  it  is  entitled  to  higher 


•Engli 


confidence  than  any  other  English  Grammar  m  use  among  us,  and  my 
wish,  that  it  may  come  into  general  use.  I  have  seen  enough  to  satisfy 
nie,  that  you  have  diligently  consulted  the  best  sources,  and  combined 
your  materials  with  discrimination  and  judgn)ent.  We  have,  as  a  facul- 
ty,  recommended  it  by  placing  it  on  the  list  ot^  books  to  be  used  by  can- 
didates  in  preparation  for  this  college.  I  have  personally  recommended 
it,  and  will  continue  to  recommend  it,  as  I  have  opportunity. 

Very  respectfully,  dear  sir,  your  friend,   &c. 
BENJAMIN  HALE. 
Geneva  College,  July  13,  1842. 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Rev.   Cyrus  Mason,  D.D.,  Rector  of  the  Grammar 
School  in  the  University  of  New-  York. 

University,  New-York,  June  13th,  1842. 
Rev.  Dr.  Bullions. — Dear  Sir — At  the  suggestion  of  the  late  Mr. 
Lcckie,  head  classical  master  in  the  Grammar  School,  wc  began  to  in- 
troduce your  grammars  at  the  opening  of  the  {)resent  year.  We  have 
made  use  chiefly  of  the  Greek  and  English  Grammar.  The  result  thus 
far  is  a  conviction  that  we  have  profited  by  the  change,  wiiich  I  was 
very  slow  to  make  ;  and  I  doubt  not  that  our  farther  experience  will  con. 
firm  the  good  opinion  we  entertain  of  your  labors  in  this  department  of 
learning.     Wishing  you  a  large  reward,  I  remain,  verv  truly  yours, 

C.  MASON,  Rector. 

NOTICES  FROM  THE  PUBLIC  PRESS. 

From  a  Report  presented  to  the  Jefferson  Co.  Asso- 
ciation OF  Teachers,  on  the  English  Gi-ammars  noio  in 
use,  the  merits  of  each,  and  the  best  method  of  teaching 
them.  By  the  Rev.  J.  R,  Boyd,  Principal  of  Black  Ri- 
ver Institute. 

"  2.  The  Grammar  by  Prof,  Bullions  of  the  Albany  Aca- 
demy, is  constructed  on  the  same  plan  as  that  of  Brown ; 
and  while  it  is  not  so  copious  in  its  exercises,  nor  so  full  in 
its  observations  upon  the  language,  yet  it  is  far  more  simple 
in  its  phraseology,  more  clear  in  its  arrangement,  more  free 
perhaps  from  errors  or  things  needing  improvement,  and  at 
the  same  time  contains  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  learned  in 
gaining  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  our  language.  The 
Rules  of  Syntax  and  observations  under  them,  are  expressed 
generally  in  the  best  manner.  The  Verb  is  most  vividly  ex- 
plained, and  that  portion  of  the  work  contains  much  not  to 
be  found  in  other  grammars,  while  it  judiciously  omits  a 
great  deal  to  be  found  in  them,  that  is  unworthy  of  insertion. 
"  It  is  excellent  upon  Prosody,  and  upon  Poetic  Diction 


6 

and  gives  an  admirable  summary  of  directions  for  correct 
and  elegant  writing,  and  the  different  forms  of  composition. 
The  typography  of  the  book  cannot  be  too  highly  commended 
— a  circumstance  that  greatly  affects  the  comfort  and  improve- 
ment of  the  learner. 

"  This  grammar  is  equally  well  adapted  to  the  beginner 
and  to  the  advanced  scholar.  The  course  of  instruction 
which  Prof.  B.  recommends  in  the  use  of  his  grammar, 
seems  wisely  adapted  to  secure  in  the  readiest  manner  the 
improvement  of  the  pupil.  The  book  is  not  so  large  as  to 
appal  the  beginner,  nor  so  small  as  to  be  of  little  use  to  those 
advanced.  On  the  whole,  in  my  judgment,  no  work  has  yet 
appeared,  which  presents  equally  high  claims  to  general  use. 
It  is  copious  without  redundancy — it  is  well  printed,  and 
forms  a  volume  pleasing  to  the  eye.  It  is  lucid  and  simple, 
while  in  the  main,  it  is  philosophically  exact. — Among  the 
old  Grammars,  our  decided  preference  is  given  to  that  of 
Prof.  Bullions." 

[From  the  Albany  Argus.] 

Principles  of  English  Grammar. — This  work  besides  containing  a 
full  system  of  grammar,  is  rendered  more  immediately  useful  fov  acade- 
mies and  common  schools,  by  containing  copious  examples  in  good  gram- 
mar for  parsing,  and  in  bad  grammar  for  correction ;  and  all  of  these  are 
arranged  directly  under  the  rule  to  which  they  apply.  Thus,  instead  of 
'  two  books,  which  are  required,  (the  grammar  and  the  exercises,)  the 
learner  finds  both  in  one,  for  a  price  at  least  not  greater  than  the  others. 

[From  the  Newburgh  Journal.] 

Bullions'  English  Grammar. — It  is  not  one  of  the  smallest  evils  con- 

I  nected  with  our    present  system  of  common    school  education,  that    our 

i  schools  are  flooded  with  such  a  variety  of  books  on  elementary  subjects, 

'  not  only  differing  in  arrangement,  but  frequently  involving  absurd  and 

■  contradictory  principles-     And  to  no  subject  are  these  remarks  more  ap- 

■  plicable,  tlian  to  English  Grammar.  And  until  some  one  elementary 
^  work  of  an  approved  character  shall  be  generally  introduced  into  our 
,  common  schools,  we  despair  of  realizing  a    general  proficiency  in  this 

important  branch  of  education.  It  is  with  pleasure,  therefore,  that  we 
'  witness  the  increasing  popularity  of  "  Bullions'  English  Grammar." 
•■■  From  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  the  work,  from  the  publication  of 
i  the  first  edition,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  pronouncing  it  the  best  Gram- 
,  mar  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  The  perspicuity  of  its  definitions, 
•  the  correctness  of  its  principles,  the  symmetry  of  its  arrangements,  as 
"  well  as  the  neat  and  accurate  form  in  which  it  is  presented,  and  withal 

the  cheapness  of  the  work,  are  so  many  recommendations  to  its  general  use. 


[Trom  the  Albany  Kvening  Journal.] 

Professor  Bullions'  English  Gra-iimar  is  obviously  the  fruit  of  souud 
and  enlightened  judgment,  patient  labor  and  close  reflection.  It  parlakea 
of  the  characler  both  of  an  original  work  and  of  a  compilation.  Fol- 
lowing  the  principles  of  Murray,  and  adopting  in  the  main  the  plan  of 
Lennie,  the  most  distinguished  of  his  successors,  the  aim  of  the  author, 
as  he  states  in  his  preface,  has  been  to  correct  what  is  erroneous,  to  re. 
trench  what  is  superfluous  or  unimportant,  to  compress  what  is  prolix,  to 
elucidate  what  is  obscure,  and  to  determine  what  is  left  doubtful,  in  tho 
books  already  in  use.  In  laboring  to  accomplish  this  excellent  design,  he 
has  contrived  to  condense,  in  very  perspicuous  language,  within  the 
compass  of  a  small,  handsomely  printed  volume,  about  200  pages,  and 
costing  but  50  cents,  all  that  is  requisite  in  this  form  to  the  acquisition 
of  a  thorougli  knowledge  of  the  grammar  of  our  language.  It  contains 
so  great  a  number  of  exercises  in  parsing  and  syntax,  judiciously  inter, 
spersed,  as  to  supersede  the  necessity  of  separate  manuals  of  exercises 
now  in  use.  Among  other  highly  useful  things  to  be  found  in  this  book, 
and  not  usually  met  with  in  works  of  this  nature,  arc  some  very  valua- 
ble  critical  remarks,  and  a  pretty  long  "  list  of  improper  expressions," 
which  unhappily  have  crept  into  use  in  different  parts  of  our  country. 
Under  the  head  of  Prosody,  the  author  has,  it  is  believed,  given  a  bet- 
ter explanation  of  the  principles  of  English  versification,  than  is  to  be 
found  in  any  other  work  of  this  nature  in  this  country.  In  short,  I 
hazard  the  prediction  that  this  will  be  found  to  be  decidedly  the  plainest, 
most  perfect,  and  most  useful  manual  of  English  grammar  that  has  yet 
appeared.  Z. 

EXTRACTS  FROM    LETTERS. 

The  following,  are  extracts  from  letters  from  County  Su- 
perintendents of  Common  Schools  in  the  State  of  New-York, 
to  whom  copies  of  the  work  had  been  sent  for  examination. 
From  Alexander  Fonda,  Esq.  Dep.  Supt.  of  Com.  Schools,  Schenectady  Co. 

Schenectady,  March  30,   1842. 

Dear  Sir — I  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  a  copy  of  your  English 
Grammar,  left  upon  my  office  desk  yesterday  afternoon.  When  in  your 
city  some  three  weeks  since,  I  was  presented  with  a  copy  by  S,  S.  Ran- 
dall,  Esq. ;  from  the  examination  I  was  enabled  to  give  it,  and  from  the 
opinion  expressed  in  relation  to  it,  by  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  ex- 
perienced  teachers  of  this  county,  to  whom  I  presented  it,  as  well  as 
from  the  knowledge  I  possessed  by  reputation  of  its  author,  I  had  before 
I  received  the  copy  from  you,  determined  to  introduce  it  as  far  as  I  was 
able,  as  a  class  book  in  the  schools  of  this  county. 
From  CHAtracEY  Goodrich,  Esq.  Dep.  Supt.  of  Com.  Schools,  Onondaga  Co 

Canal,  June  24,  1842. 

Dear  Sir— Your  favor  of  the  1st  instant  has  just  come  to  hand.     The 
Grammar  referred  to  has  been  received  and  examined.     I    am  fully  sa 
tisfied  of  its  superior  meriu  as  a  grammar  for  common  schools,  over  any 


8 

other  work  I  have  seen.     I  shall  take  the  earliest  measures  for  its  intro- 
duction into  the  schools  under  my  supervision. 

From  RosWELL  K.  Boujrne,  Esq.  Dep.  Supt.  of  Com.  Schooli,  Chenango  C«. 

Pitcher,  June  30.  1842. 
Dear  Sir — Some  time  since  I  received  a  copy  of  a  work  on  English  gram. 
mar,  by  the  Rev.  Peter  Bullions,  D.U.  for  wliich  I  am  much  obliged.  I 
have  given  the  book  as  close  an  examination  as  circumstances  would 
permit.  The  book  is  well  got  up,  and  exhibits  the  thorough  acquaint- 
ance of  the  author  with  his  subject.  I  think  it  well  calculated  for  our 
common  schools. 

Fro7n  Garnsey  Beach,  Esq.  Dep.    Supt.  of  Common  Schools.  Putnam  Co. 

Patterson,  July  2,  1842. 

Dear  Sir — Yours  of  the  first  ult,  was  received  on  Thur.sday  last.     As 
it  respects  your  Grammar  I  have  carefully  examined  it,  and  without  en- 
tering into  particulars,  I  consider    it  the    best  I  have    ever  seen,  and  as 
such,  1  have  recommended  it  to  the  several  schools  under  my  care. 
From  0.  W.  Randall,  Esq.  Dep.  Supt.  of  Common   Schools,  Osxcego  Co. 

Phcenix,  July  2,  1842. 

Mr.  P.  Bullions, — Dear  Sir — I  have  for  the  last  two  weeks  devoted 
some  considerable  time,  in  perusing  your  system  of  English  Grammar, 
and  in  reply  to  yours,  requesting  my  views  of  the  work,  I  can  cheer, 
fully  say,  that  its  general  arrangment,  is  admirably  adapted  cither  to  the 
novice  or  adept.  The  §  27th  and  §  28th  on  verbs,  with  the  attendant  remarks, 
are  highly  important,  and  essential  to  the  full  completion  of  any  system 
of  grammar.  The  work  taken  together  is  remarkable  for  simplicity, 
lucidity  and  exactness,  and  is  calculated  not  only  to  make  the  correct 
grammarian,  but  also  a  correct  prosodian.  Whatever  may  be  its  fate  in 
the  field,  it  enters  with  a  large  share  of  inerit  on  its  side,  and  with  full 
as  fair  prospect  of  success  as  any  work  extant. 

From  W.  S.  Pkeston,  Esq.  Dep.    Supt.  of  Com  Schools,  Suffolk  Co.  N.  Y. 

Patchogue,  L.  I.  July  6,  1842. 
Prof  P.  Bullions, — Dear  Sir — Some  time  since  I  received  a  copy  of 
your  English  Grammar,  for  which  I  am  much  obliged.  I  have  devoted 
as  much  time  to  its  perusal  as  circumstances  would  permit,  and  can  say 
of  it,  that  I  believe  it  claims  decided  prf  ierence  over  the  Grammars  ge- 
nerally used  in  schools  throughout  this  country,  and  indeed  I  may  say, 
over  the  many  works  on  that  science  extant. 

From  James  Henry,  Esq.   Dep.    Supt.  of  Common   Schools,  Herkimer  Co. 

Little-Falls,  July  11,  1842. 

Prof.  Bullions, — Sir — I  have  read  with  as  much  attention  as  my  avo- 
cations would  allow,  the  work  you  had  the  kindness  to  send  me,  upon 
English  Grammar,  and  so  far  as  I  am  capable  of  forming  an  opinion  of 
the  merits  of  your  book,  I  concur  generally  in  the  views  expressed  in 
the  extract  from  the  report  of  M     6oyd,  as  contained  in  your  circular. 


9 

From  D.  H.    Stevens,  Dep.   Supt.  of  Common  Schools,  Franklm  Co.  N.  y. 

Moira,  Aug.  27,  1842. 
Rev.  P.  Bullions,— Dear  Sir— On  Wednesday  the  24lli  iiistanf,  the 
coniinittee  determined  upon  a  series  of  books,  and  I  have  the  happiness 
to  inform  you,  that  your  English  Grammar  will  be  reported  on  tiie  first 
Wednesday  in  October  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  Association,  as  the 
most  brief,  perspicuous  and  philosophical  work,  upon  that  subject  within 
our  knowledge. 

From  R.  W.  Finch,  Esq.  Dep.  Supt.  of  Common  Schools.  Steuben  Co.  N.  Y' 

Bath,  Sept.  11,  1812. 

Dear  Sir — Having  at  length  given  3'our  English  Grammar  a  careful 
perusal ;  and  having  compared  it  with  all  the  mudeni  works  on  the  sub- 
ject, which  liave  any  considerable  claims  to  merit,  I  am  prepared  to  make 
a  more  enlightened  decision,  and  one  that  is  satisfactory  to  myself.  The 
iDork  has  7ny  decided  preference. 

From  3.  W.  Fairfield,  and  Cvrus  Curtiss,  Esqrs.  Dep.    Superintendents 
of  Common  Schools,  Hudson,  N,   Y. 

Hudson,  Sept.  15,  1842. 

Rev.  P.  Bullions, — Sir — We  have  examined  a  copy  of  your  English 
Granunar,  with  reference  to  the  introduction  of  the  same  into  our  pub- 
lic schools,  and  we  take  pleasure  in  saying  that  the  examination  liaa 
proved  very  satisfactory.  We  cannot,  without  occupying  too  much 
space,  specify  the  particular  points  of  excellence  which  we  noticed  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  ditrcrent  parts,  the  clearness  of  expression  and 
illustration,  and  the  precise  adaptation  of  the  Rules  of  Syntax,  to  the 
principles  previously  laid  down.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  we  believe 
it  to  be,  in  all  tlic  requisites  of  a  good  school  book,  superior  to  any  other 
English  Granmiar  which  has  come  under  our  observation. 

II.  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LATIN  GRAMMAK,  &c. 

This  work  is  upon  the  foundation  of  Adam's  Latin  Grammar,  so  long 
and  so  well  known  as  a  text  book  in  this  country.  The  object  aimed  at 
was  to  combine  with  all  that  is  excellent  in  the  work  of  Adam,  the  im- 
portant results  of  subsequent  labors  in  this  field, — to  correct  errors  and 
supply  defects, — to  bring  the  whole  up  to  that  point  which  the  present 
state  of  classical  learning  requires, — and  to  give  it  such  a  form  as  to  rcn. 
der  it  a  suitable  part  of  the  series.     The  following  notices  are  furnished. 

From  Rev.  James  W.  Alexander,  Prof.  Belles  Lcttres  in  the  College  of 
New- Jersey. 

Princeton,  N.  J.  Aug.   15,  1842. 

1  have  examined  witii  some  care  the  Latin  Grammar  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Bullions.  It  is,  if  I  may  hazard  a  judgment,  a  most  valuable  work, 
evincing  that  peculiar  apprehension  of  tiie  i>ui)irs  neeessiticH.  which 
nothing  but  long  continued  practice  as  an  instructor  can  produce.  Among 
our  various  Latin  GraminaTS,  it  deserves  the  place  which  is  occupied  by 
the  best ;  ami  no  teaclier,  as  I  think,  need  hesitate  a  moment  about  in 
troducing  it 


10 

[From  the  Biblical  Repertory,  or  Princeton  Review,  Jan.  1842.J 
The  Principles  of  Latin  Grammar,  &c. — This  completes  the  ficrics 
proposed  hy  tlic  learned  author,  who  has  now  furnished  us  with  an  Eng. 
lish,  a  Latin,  and  a  Greek  Grammar,  which  liavc  this  pecuHar  recom- 
mendation that  they  arc  arranged  in  the  same  order,  and  expressed  in 
the  same  terms,  so  far  as  the  differences  of  the  languages  permit.  The 
basis  of  this  manual  is  the  well  known  Grammar  of  Adam,  an  excellent 
summary,  but  at  the  same  time  one  which  adm.tted  of  retrenchment,  ad- 
dition, and  emendation,  all  which  have  been  ably  furnished  by  Dr.  Bul- 
lions- We  have  not  made  a  business  of  perusing  the  work  laboriously, 
but  we  have  looked  over  the  whole  and  bestowed  particular  attention  on 
certain  parts  ;  and  therefore  feel  at  liberty  to  recommend  it  with  great 
confidence,  especially  to  ail  such  teachers  as  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
using  Adam's  Grammar. 

III.  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  GREEK   GRAMMAR,  &c. 

The  object  of  this  publication  was  to  provide  a  comprehensive  manual 
of  Greek  Grammar,  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  younger,  as  well  as  to  the 
more  advanced  class  of  students  in  our  schools  and  colleges,  and  espe- 
cially of  those  under  the  author's  own  care.  To  this  end,  the  leading 
principles  of  Greek  Grammar  are  exhibited  in  rules  as  kw  and  brief  as 
possible,  so  as  to  be  easily  committed  to  memory,  and  at  the  same  time 
80  comprehensive  and  perspicuous,  as  to  be  of  general  and  easy  application. 

The  following  notices  of  this  work,  from  ditferent  sources,  will  show 
the  estimate  formed  of  it  by  competent  judges. 

Bullions'  Greek  Grammar. — We  have  examined  the  second  edition 
of  Dr.  Bullions'  Greek  Grammar,  and  consider  it,  upon  the  whole,  the 
best  grammar  of  the  Greek  language  with  which  we  are  acquainted 
The  parts  to  be  committed  to  memory  are  both  concise  and  comprehen 
sive  ;  the  illustrations  are  full  without  prolixity,  and  the  arrangement  na- 
tural and  judicious.  The  present  edition  is  considerably  reduced  in  size 
from  the  former,  without,  as  we  apprehend,  at  all  impairing  its  value. 

It  discovers  in  its  compilation  much  labor  and  research,  as  well  as 
sound  judgment.  We  are  persuaded  that  the  general  use  of  it  in  our 
grammar  schools  and  academies  would  facilitate  the  acquisition  of  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  language.  Judicious  teachers  pursuing  the 
plan  marked  out  by  the  author  in  his  preface,  would  usually  conduct 
their  pupils  to  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  language  in  a  less  time  by 
several  months  than  by  the  systems  formerly  in  use.  We  therefore  give 
it  our  cordial  recommendation.  ELIPHALET  NOTT, 

R.  PROUDFIT, 

Union  College,  December  19,  1840.         ALONZO  POTTER. 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Rev.  Daniel  D.  Whedon,  A.M.  Professor  of  An- 
dent  Languages  and  Literature,  in  the  Wesleyan  University,  MiddLeton,  Ct. 
Wesleyan  University,  March  29,  1842. 
Rev.  Dr.  Bvluons, — Dear  Sir — Although  I  have  not  the  honor  of 


11 

your  personal  acquaintance,  I  take  the  liberty  of  addressing  to  you  my 
thanKs  for  your  excellent  Greek  Grammar.  Nothwithstanding  many 
personal,  urgent,  and  interested  appeals  in  favor  of  other  grammars — and 
our  literary  market  seems  to  abound  with  that  kind  of  stock — the  in- 
trinsic superiority  of  your  manual  over  every  rival,  induced  ine,  after  I 
saw  your  last  edition,  to  adopt  it  in  the  Greek  department  of  the  Wes- 
leyan  University,  and  the  success  of  my  present  Freshman  class,  amply 
justirios  the  course. 

Extract  cf  a  letter  from  Henry  Bannister,  A.M.  Principal  of  the  Academy 
in  Fairfield,  N.  Y. 

Fairfield  Academy,  May  12,  1842. 

Rev.  Doct.  Bullions, — Sir — Sometime  since  I  received  your  English 
and  Greek  Grammar,  of  each,  one  copy ;  and,  if  it  is  not  too  late,  I 
would  now  return  you  my  sincere  thanks.  I  have  not  found  in  any  work, 
suitable  for  a  text  book  in  schools,  an  analysis  of  the  verb  so  strictly 
philosophical,  and  at  the  same  time  so  easy  to  the  learner  to  master  and 
to  retain  when  mastered,  as  that  contained  in  your  work.  The  editorial 
observations  on  government,  and  indeed  the  whole  matter  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  Syntax,  especially  commend  your  work  to  general  use  in 

schools.  

[From  the  Princeton  Review,  for  Jan.  1840.] 

It  is  with  pleasure  we  welcome  a  second  edition  of  this  manual,  which 
we  continue  to  regard  as  still  unsurpassed  by  any  similar  work  in  our 
language.  The  typography  and  the  quality  of  the  paper  are  uncommon, 
ly  good.  We  observe  valuable  additions  and  alterations.  For  all  that  we 
can  see,  everything  worth  knowing  in  Thiersch  is  here  condensed  into  a 
iew  pages.  We  have  certainly  never  seen  the  anatomy  of  tiie  Greek 
verb  so  neatly  demonstrated.  The  Syntax  is  full,  and  presents  the  lead- 
ing  facts  and  principles,  by  rules,  so  as  to  be  easily  committed  to  mera- 
ory.  To  learners  who  are  beginning  the  language,  and  especially  to 
teachers  of  grammar  schools,  we  earnestly  recommend  this  book. 


[From  the  New-York  Observer.] 
Bullions'  Principles  of  Gheek  Grammar,  &c.  2d  edition.  With 
pleasure  we  hail  the  second  edition  of  tliis  valuable  work,  and  are  happy 
to  find  that  the  revision  which  it  has  tmdergone  has  resulted  in  decided 
improvements.  Formed,  as  it  is,  on  the  basis  of  that  most  symmetrical 
of  all  modern  grammars.  Dr.  Moor's  Greek  Grammar,  which  its  learned 
author  never  lived  to  complete.  It  is  now  made  to  embrace  not  only  the 
general  rules,  but  all  the  minutite  essential  to  a  critical  knowledge  of 
that  ancient  and  elegant  language.  One  of  the  chief  excellencies  of  this 
model,  and  one  that  is  fully  retained  in  this  grammar,  is  to  be  found  in 
the  simplicity,  perspicuity,  conciseness,  and  yet  fulness  of  the  definitions 
and  rules  for  the  various  modifications  of  the  language.  The  sense  is 
clearly  expressed,  while  scarcely  a  particle  is  used  that  could  have  been 
dispensed  with.  We  have  no  hesitation  in  expressing  the  opinion,  that 
Dr.  B.  has  produced  the  most  complete  and  useful  Greek  grammar  that 
is  to  be  found  in  the  English  language. 


12 

RECOMMENDATIONS   OF  THE  SERIES. 

From  the  Rev.  John  Ludlow,  D.D.  Provost  of  the  University  of  Perm. 

No  one  I  think  can  ever  examine  the  series  of  Grammars  published  by 
Dr.  Bullions,  without  a  deep  conviction  of  their  superior  excellence. 
When  I  he  English  Grammar,  the  first  in  the  series,  was  published  in 
1834.  it  was  my  pleasure,  in  connexion  with  some  honored  individuals, 
in  the  city  of  Albany,  to  bear  the  highest  testimony  to  its  worth  ;  that 
testimony,  if  I  mistake  not,  received  the  unanimous  approval  of  all 
whose  judgment  can  or  ought  to  influence  public  opinion.  I  have  seen, 
with  great  gratification,  that  the  2d  and  3d  in  the  series,  the  Latin  and 
Greek,  have  met  with  the  same  favorable  judgement,  which  I  believe  to 
be  entirely  deserved,  and  in  which  I  do  most  heartily  concur. 

From  the  Hon.  Alfred  Conklino,  Judge  of  the  United  States  Court  in  the 
Northern  District  of  New-  York,  pulAished  in  the  Cayuga  Patriot. 
Bullions'  Series  of  Grammars. — By  the  recent  publication  of  "  The 
Principles  OF  Latin  Grammar,"  this  ser/es  of  grammars  (English,  Latin, 
and  Greek,)  is  at  length  completed.  To  their  preparation.  Dr.  Bullions 
has  devoted  many  years  of  the  best  portion  of  his  life.  In  the  composi. 
tion  of  these  books,  he  has  shown  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  works 
of  his  ablest  predecessors;  and  while  upon  the  one  hand,  he  has  not  scru- 
pled  freely  to  avail  himself  of  their  labors,  on  the  other  hand,  by  studi- 
ously avoiding  all  that  is  objectionable  in  them,  and  by  re-modelling,  im. 
proving,  and  illustrating  the  rest,  he  has  unquestionably  succeeded  in  con- 
Etructing  the  best — decidedly  the  very  best — grammar,  in  each  of  the 
three  above  named  languages,  that  has  yet  appeared.  Sucii  is  the  deli- 
berate and  impartial  judgment  which  has  been  repeatedly  expressed  by 
the  most  competent  judges,  respecting  the  English  and  Greek  grammars  ; 
and  such,  I  hesitate  not  to  believe,  will  be  the  judgment  formed  of  the 
Latin  grammar.  But  independently  of  the  superiority  of  these  works 
separately  considered,  they  possess,  collectively,  the  great  additional  re- 
commendation of  having  their  leading  parts  arranged  in  the  same  order, 
and,  as  far  as  properly  can  be  done,  expressed  in  the  same  language.  An 
acquaintance  with  one  of  them,  therefore,  cannot  fail  greatly  to  facilitate 
the  study  of  another,  and  at  the  same  time,  by  directing  the  attention  of 
the  student  distinctly  to  the  points  of  agreement  and  of  difference  in  the 
several  languages,  to  render  his  acquisitions  more  accurate,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  give  him  clearer  and  more  comprehensive  views  of  the 
general  principles  of  language.  The  importance  of  using  in  academies 
and  schools  of  the  United  States  none  but  ably  written  and  unexcep 
tionable  school  books,  is  incalculable  ;  and  without  intending  unnecessa- 
nly  to -depreciate  the  labors  of  others,  as  a  friend  of  sound  education,  I 
cannot  refrain  from  expressing  an  earnest  hope  of  seeing  this  series  of 
grammars  in  general  use.  They  are  all  beautifully  printed  on  very  good 
paper,  and  are  sold  at  very  reasonable  prices.  U^^fo7^ 

33 


iisa3A(Nn  3H1  o 


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•  SANIA  6AP:;/ -A   o 


THF  IJBRAKY 
L'NIVKRSITV  OF  (  AI.IKORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  1)1  K  ON  THK  LAST  DATK 
STAMPED  BKI.OW. 


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o  JO  Aavsan  wi  «. 


Jtrlli 


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